Em Hotep:  January 27 marks the one year anniversary of the premier of Khufu Reborn at la Géode in Paris.  Of course, January 25 marked the one year anniversary of the January Revolution in Cairo.  Much has changed in Egypt in the last year, and the story continues to develop.  How has this affected your ability to work on-site, particularly with the planned survey with Laval University?

Jean-Pierre Houdin:  First of all, your question makes me think about something none of us can control:  Time!  Time flies…  It has already been one year since the premiere of Khufu Reborn at la Géode.

Jean-Pierre Houdin with his father, Henri, refining the internal ramp theory

This also begins my thirteenth year of research on Khufu’s pyramid, which has expanded to include research on the other large pyramids of the Fourth Dynasty.  When you consider twelve full years dedicated to one single quest, to learn how these large pyramids were built, that’s a lot of time invested in learning, analyzing, researching, thinking, modeling and simulating on a single subject.

In life, you learn in school—at high school and then at university—before having a job for most of the rest of your life, where your education continues.  That is what I did.  I studied architecture at the Beaux-Arts in Paris between 1970 and 1976, so that is six years spent earning my Ph.D in architecture.  Then I ran my own architectural business for more than 22 years, so that is another 22 years of field training, from designing structures on paper and computer modeling to actually being on-site to assist in their construction.

Then in January, 1999, came the big jump into the unknown, in every sense of the word.  To leave a comfortable life to focus exclusively on the search for an explanation about one of the last great enigmas of our day:  to understand a 45-centuries-old civilization in what is its biggest achievement—the pyramids.

A new life, full of uncertainties about my own future, but rich in knowledge and understanding because of this determination to resolve an enigma, something you can’t get in high school or university because they simply don’t have the answer.  This is not the kind of quest where the answer is there waiting for you in a book; for this sort of quest you have to become the scholar and write the answer yourself, based on the compilation of your learning and the addition of your own research.

Jean-Pierre Houdin at la Géode, Paris, in 2007 for the premier of the first part of his work, Khufu Revealed (photo courtesy Jean-Pierre Houdin/Dassault Systèmes)

After twelve years of research I’m still not a knighted Egyptologist, but I’ve surely acquired more knowledge on the specific subject of the pyramids than almost any other human being, Egyptologists included.  This had to be said…for those who missed this point…  My work incorporates the knowledge of Egyptologists, both what has been written and those who have worked directly with me, the expertise of engineers and computer modeling specialists, as well as my academic and practical experience as an architect and a builder.  All of these are required to understand the enigma of the pyramids.

Now, a year is gone and not a quiet one on the Egyptian soil.  While we are celebrating the first anniversary of the Géode première, Egyptians are celebrating the first anniversary of the Tahrir Square revolution, a search for a new beginning after sixty years of a non-democratic regime.  And this revolution was absolutely needed and is still not fully achieved.  Any revolution takes time to succeed…

It is not hard to imagine that, on the Egyptology side, or at least on my own research side, nothing could have happened during this period of time.  But there have been some important developments with the SCA and the Ministry of Antiquities that could clear the way for a better relationship with the authorities in charge.  We should expect less personal decisions regarding the authorizations to carry out a survey. The new Ministry of Antiquities, Dr. Mohamed Ibrahim, made it clear that now any approval regarding any mission or survey will be decided by the SCA council members and not by one man. There again, time will tell.

Meanwhile, we are still preparing, with Dassault Systèmes and Laval University, the future mission on site using an infrared camera, a truly non-destructive technique because we won’t touch the pyramid at all.  Experiments are being set for the coming weeks on the “Redoute”, a fortified building in the walls of Old Quebec.

The Project Khufu Team at Laval University (left to right) Xavier Maldague, Matthieu Klein, Mehdi Tayoubi, Jean-Pierre Houdin, Richard Breitner (Courtesy Mehdi Tayoubi/ Dassault Systèmes)

But I often ask myself, what is going wrong with our world?  Why is there this resistance to letting science move forward?  I have put forward a totally coherent theory from A to Z based on dozens of clues that I have gathered, most of which are right before our eyes for anyone to observe.  The theory is fully explained and can literally be experienced thanks to the same virtual reality and 3D technology that engineers and architects use to design modern structures.  We have many non-destructive techniques available, some of which could give a definitive proof in a few days, whilst others, like Multipolar Infrared Vision (the one in preparation) would take a little more time, but would be well worth it for Egyptology and the people of Egypt themselves.

A year from now, January 25, 2013, we could celebrate the second anniversary of the Tahrir revolution with a tremendous asset for the future of Egypt: a complete understanding of the big pyramids and a new reason for millions of tourists to come in Egypt—rediscovering Khufu’s Pyramid, walking in its internal ramp and visiting its two antechambers.

Should I be wrong…science would have been respected and Time could pass on the pyramids.  The worst thing is to do nothing.

Now…I don’t think that I will be wrong, because…

Em Hotep:  I saw where Japan recently did a television special on your work. Are there other documentaries forthcoming that we can look forward to?

Jean-Pierre Houdin:  In fact, in 2008 and 2009, several documentaries, all co-produced by Dassault Systèmes, were filmed in Egypt about my work.  The National Geographic Channel produced Unlocking the Great Pyramid (also known as The last Secret on BBC), Gedeon (for French Channels France 2/France 5) produced Kheops Révélé (directed by Florence Tran) and NHK Japan produced three different versions.  All of these documentaries were big successes and greatly helped the theory being known all around the world.

Mehdi Tayoubi and Florence Tran (Courtesy Mehdi Tayoubi/Dassault Systèmes)

Recently, I discovered the long NHK version about the theory and I was really impressed by the meticulous and scientific approach to my work.  Although it was in Japanese, thanks to the images and 3D animations, I was able to fully understand all the processes and details of the theory.  The Japanese director had remarkably transmitted the message.

Over the last four years I have seen evidence of the impact these documentaries are having:  each time one is broadcasted somewhere on Earth, the day after I always receive e-mails from viewers telling me that they are totally convinced and that they support me and my work.  By now I have received hundreds and hundreds of e-mails, and I always reply.  I’m proud of having so many ambassadors for the theory almost everywhere on the globe.

We have no plan, for now, to make a new documentary but this could change very quickly if we get permission for a survey on site.

Otherwise, time is not lost at all.  With the “Khufu Team” (lead by Mehdi Tayoubi and Richard Breitner) at Dassault Systèmes, we are now working, with the CATIA software, on the modeling of the last pyramid of Khufu’s father Snefru, the Red Pyramid at Dashur.  The architectural legacy between the Red Pyramid and the Great Pyramid is amazing and the building processes are similar, although with some design differences regarding the internal ramp.

Richard Breitner and Jean-Pierre Houdin guide us through the 3D virtual reality world of Khufu Reborn at la Géode one year ago today (courtesy Tayoubi/Dassault Systèmes)

You will be surprised by the cleverness of the architects and engineers.  Just as Khufu’s pyramid is a “Chef d’oeuvre” of great engineering due to its size and its multiple internal chambers and corridors, Snefru’s Red pyramid is equally a “Chef d’oeuvre” for its fineness, simplicity, purity and over all, for how quickly they were able to built it.

Last but not least, I’m very proud to learn more and more every day that the theory is being taught to pupils and students in many parts of the world.  Slowly but surely, this theory is gaining momentum in schools and universities, replacing theories that have been stubbornly taught for more than a century despite their lack of evidence and common sense, theories that literally cannot fit within the topography of the Giza Plateau.

Em Hotep:  In the comments section of the Pyramid Shafts article there was much discussion and explanation by you regarding the shafts, and I have had several people send me some questions which I have promised to ask you. I will be publishing the follow-up article about the Djedi Project and interviews with Shaun Whitehead and Mehdi Tayoubi about this project the first part of next week. I know the shafts play a role in the development of your theory, both as explanations as to their purpose and as clues to the antechambers. May I revisit the question of the pyramid shafts with you after the Djedi article/interviews are posted?

Jean-Pierre Houdin:  Absolutely…once your article and interviews about the Djedi Project have been published, your readers will then have a strong base to understand my own ideas about these shafts. The Queen’s Chamber and the King’s Chamber shafts seem to have the same purpose, but this is not the case.  More to come.

Copyright by Keith Payne, 2012.  All rights reserved.

Inside:  Current projects in the Valley of the Kings, Steve’s meeting with the new head of the Supreme Council of Antiquities, and a picture of KV64 you will not see anywhere else!

Em Hotep:  How did you happen to be on the site of KV64 to take this photograph?

The newly-discovered tomb KV64 (left) next to KV40 (right). KV64 was discovered during routine clearing of debris by a team from the University of Basel in their work to document uninscribed tombs in the Valley of the Kings (photo by Steve Cross)

Steve Cross:  The photo was taken from the path along the cliff top above the Valley.  This was for the study I was doing on the ancient workmen’s huts which required me to walk all the paths and photograph and map the huts.  I had special permission to photograph from the Director of the West Bank.

Stephen Cross

Em Hotep:  What is the current policy on photography in the Valley of the Kings?

Steve Cross:  Photography outside and inside the tombs in the Valley is still banned I’m afraid.  I did mention this to [Dr. Mohamed el Bialy] the new head of the SCA saying it was bad for tourism and he said he is thinking of stopping the ban.  The ban on photography inside tombs will of course remain.

Close up of KV64 (left) and KV40 (right)—before being identified as a tomb in its own right, KV64 was simply called KV40b (Photo by Steve Cross)

Em Hotep:  Is there anything you can share with us about the work going on around KV64?  Elsewhere in the Valley?

Steve Cross:  The University of Basel is investigating all uninscribed tombs in the Valley, a very necessary task that has been a long time in coming.  During this work surface clearing is taking place which is how they discovered KV64.  My specific interest is that more workmen’s huts are also being uncovered.  As many of the groups of huts can be dated, they are invaluable for working out the stratigraphy of the Valley.

Detail of KV64 (photo by Steve Cross)

A Finnish Mission is also excavating the Village de Repose at the top of the col between the Valley and Deir el Medina.

Sarcophagus of Merenptah (photo by Hajor)

Edwin Brock and Lyla Brock are also working in KV8, Merenptah, re-constructing and photographing the sarcophagus.  This must be an immensely satisfying task!

KV34, Tuthmosis III, is unfortunately closed for restoration.  (My favourite tomb!)

Em Hotep:  You mentioned that you had an opportunity to speak with Dr. Mohamed el Bialy, the new Director of the Supreme Council of Antiquities.  What is your impression?  Did he speak about the near and distant future of work in Egypt?

Dr. Mohamed el Bialy

Steve Cross:  Dr. Bialy is a lovely man.  He is also a scholar, he was director of the West Bank, then Aswan, and he has also excavated in his own right, e.g. the clearance of KV42.  I had a very good chat with him and he stated that no one man now has the power to make a decision, anything now must go to the committee in Cairo.  He toured the East and West Bank monuments and I think we will see some changes for the better now.  I believe that archaeology in Egypt can now return to normal scientific work.

Obviously the state of the country is still in flux and plans for the future must wait until after the elections and a new government has also been elected.

Em Hotep:  Can you tell us about any current project s you have going on?

Entrance stairs to KV34 (photo by Hajor)

Steve Cross:  Yes, writing!  Always writing!  Is it not funny that a few seasons excavating can lead to years of study, and writing it up?  After all, there is no point in excavating unless it is published for all.  I just finished a paper on the workmen’s huts and it’s off to the journal.  This was the purpose of my last trip to Luxor.  I’m also working on another paper on just how arduous it was to cut a royal tomb, but this is on the back burner for now.  To be honest, in some ways the workers who made the tomb interest me more than the kings, their lives and working practices.  I would love to see the huts reproduced in a side wadi with men performing the tasks the ancients did in making a tomb, mixing plaster, grinding inks, filling lamps etc.  Perhaps even cutting of a sample tomb?

There is a section off cliff face to the west (right) of the staircase up to KV34 that is fractured across its bottom and is in danger of falling.  The SCA asked if it could be saved as it is full of ancient graffiti.  I am working on this and will try to get the World Monument Fund involved.

Em Hotep:  Can you tell us anything about future plans you have?

Steve Cross:  I have been asked to write a chapter for new book on the Valley that will be published next year.  I am currently collecting the research for this.

And one day, Inshalla!  I hope to excavate again in the Valley!

Stephen is a member of the Egypt Exploration Society, The Geologist’s Association (UK), the Merseyside Archaeological Society and the Liverpool Geologist’s Association. He writes and lectures on the Valley of the Kings. He was an advisor to the SCA excavations in the Central Area and KV8 digs, 2008/09 seasons.

For a the full-sized untouched photo of KV64 click here

Copyright by Keith Payne, 2012.  All rights reserved.

All pictures of KV64 are used with permission and are the sole property of Steve Cross, copyright by Steve Cross, 2012, all rights reserved.  Photos “Sarcophagus of Merenptah-KV8” and “Entrance to KV34” by Hajor are used in accordance with the Creative Commons share alike license.

As always, these are not typical bloggers (have I mentioned how much I dislike that marginalizing term, blogger?), these are folks who are thoughtful, critical, analytical, and who often have direct channels to the primary sources.  Don’t forget to check out the comments sections, as this is where the story tends to develop.  And you have my word that these kind people will welcome your comments and questions as well.

• Egyptological:  Tomb K64 in the Valley of the Kings – The Story as it Broke by Kate Phizackerley

• Luxor News:  KV64 – Breaking News 22nd Dynasty tomb by Jane Akshar

• Egyptology News:  More re: new VOK discovery by Andie Byrnes

• News From the Valley of the Kings:  KV64 is the Tomb of Ni Hms Bastet by Kate Phizackerley

• Egyptians:  KV 64 Found? By Tim Reid

(Kate gets two entries because VoK is her bailiwick)

The Djedi Project was back in the headlines at the end of December when New Scientist magazine named the discovery one of the Top 10 Science Stories of 2011.  For the next few articles, Em Hotep will bring you up to date on the history of the exploration of the mysterious shafts in the Great Pyramid.  This current article will cover the ground from Waynman Dixon up to the Pyramid Rover Project, with the next article focusing exclusively on Project Djedi.  This will be followed by a couple of very special interviews you will not want to miss..

The Pyramid Shafts

The Great Pyramid of Giza (Photo by Keith Payne)

The Great Pyramid was built over 4,500 years ago as the final resting place of Pharaoh Khufu, the second pharaoh of the Fourth Dynasty.  Designed and executed by Khufu’s vizier and Master of Works, Hemienu, Khufu wanted a pyramid that would rival that of his father, Snefru—the Red Pyramid located at Dashur.  He succeeded.  The Great Pyramid is the tallest, and at 146.5 m would remain the tallest man-made structure in the world for another 3,800 years.

Hemienu and his fellow architects took the secrets of its construction to their graves and we are only just now beginning to fathom how the work could have been done with the tools and methodologies that we know existed at the time (for more on this, start with Hemienu to Houdin: Building A Great Pyramid – Introduction).  But even ignoring for the moment how the pyramid was built, many of the elements in the structure itself have raised questions.  From the unusually tall sloping passage known as the Grand Gallery to the equally puzzling tiered compartments above the King’s Chamber, Egyptologists and everyday people have wondered whether these labor and resource intensive structures served  ritual or structural purposes, or both.  The pyramid shafts would fall into this category as well.

There are four shafts that we know of, two exiting the north and south walls of the King’s Chamber (KCN and KCS, respectively) and two exiting the north and south walls of the Queen’s Chamber (QCN and QCS).  Their purpose has always been cause for speculation.  They have often been referred to as ventilation shafts, but they seem to be too long and narrow to efficiently provide airflow, so this is almost certainly not their purpose (But see Comments section at the end of the article).  Zahi Hawass, former secretary of the Supreme Council of Antiquities, has proposed that they are related to king’s spirit and the solar boats that were discovered buried on the southern side of the pyramid.

The boats are oriented on an east-west axis, corresponding to the daily journeys that the sun god Ra would make through the sky. He believes that the southern shaft [KCS] symbolically served as a portal through which the king’s ka could travel in the night and day barques in the afterlife.  He also speculates that the northern shaft (KCN) would allow the king to symbolically journey on his boats toward the east as Horus surveying his kingdom of Upper and Lower Egypt. (Hawass et. al, 2010, p. 215)

This theory sits well with what we know about Old Kingdom royal funerary practices, but it doesn’t tell us much about the shafts in the Queen’s Chamber.  Unlike those of the King’s Chamber, QCN and QCS do not exit the pyramid—they seem to terminate somewhere within its massive bulk (it is worth noting that even the King’s Chamber shafts may have been covered by the now-missing casing stones that once covered the pyramid’s surface).  This would also seem to rule out astrological functions, as the sky would not be visible from the shafts, and would eliminate the ventilation theory for obvious reasons.  Besides, until their discovery in 1872 by a British engineer named Waynman Dixon, the shafts were sealed from the inside as well.

The Djedi Project is the latest in a series of explorations to better understand the pyramid shafts, particularly the Queen’s Chamber shafts, and what purpose they may have served.  Were they of religious significance, or did they serve a functional purpose in the building of the Great Pyramid?  Even if their purpose was spiritual in nature, which aspects of their structure are symbolic and which are functional?  Were the markings found in QCS by the Djedi Project team religious in nature, or were they notations left by the ancient builders?

The answers to these questions could provide clues about how the pyramid was built, the religious and funerary practices of the time, and could even lead to an as-of-yet undiscovered section of the pyramid.  Before we can approach the Djedi Project and how it might help us have a better understanding of the Great Pyramid, we should first review the history of the exploration of these mysterious shafts.  This article will cover this history from their discovery by Waynman Dixon up to the Pyramid Rover Project.

Charles Piazzi Smyth and Waynman Dixon

Charles Piazzi Smyth

The story of the Queen’s Chamber shafts begins with the surveys commissioned by Charles Piazzi Smyth, director of the Royal Observatory, Edinburgh, from 1846 to 1888.  Smyth became interested in the Great Pyramid when he read John Taylor’s 1859 book The Great Pyramid:  Why Was It Built?  Who Built it?  Influenced by Taylor’s notion that the pyramid had been designed and constructed by Noah, of Great Flood fame, Smyth believed that the pyramid was built on the principles of sacred geometry, and that an understanding of this system could be deduced if accurate measurements of the pyramid were undertaken.

Smyth set out to measure every aspect of the pyramid he could think of, inside and out.  His first survey was conducted in 1865, an expedition Smyth funded himself when the Royal Society refused him a grant due to what they considered to be the pseudo-scientific underpinnings of his work.  Nonetheless, his extremely thorough survey was published in the Edinburgh Observations Vol. xiii and led to his partial vindication when he was awarded the Keith Prize by the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1867.

Sacred Geometry aside, Smyth’s survey of the Great Pyramid of Khufu was the beginning of our scientific understanding of this awe-inspiring edifice (Above: Plate VII from Charles Piazzi Smyth’s “Our Inheritance in the Great Pyramid”)

Charles Piazzi Smyth wanted to undertake additional measurements in 1872 but was prevented from returning to the Giza Plateau by illness.  Instead, he asked a friend and colleague, Waynman Dixon, a British engineer who along with his brother John were involved in construction work at Cairo, to take some measurements on his behalf.  The brothers Dixon set aside some time to help their friend, a fortunate development for the rest of us.  The Dixons shared Smyth’s inquisitive nature, and the addition of their expertise as builders and engineers led to one of the great discoveries in Egyptology.

The Dixons quickly fell under the Great Pyramid’s spell and were soon looking for secrets of their own.  Waynman was particularly curious about the shafts leading from the King’s Chamber and suspected that there might be similar shafts in the Queen’s Chamber.  He was drawn to a crack in the masonry of the southern wall, and after inserting a rigid wire between the blocks discovered that there was a hollow space behind them.  After chiseling through the facing stone he discovered that he was right—there was a shaft that seemed to correspond to those in the King’s Chamber.

The Smyth-Dixon survey of the Queen’s Chamber with “Dixon’s Channels” marked on the northern and southern walls. QCN still shows Dixon’s chisel marks, while QCS has been patched up a bit.

The Dixon Artifacts, minus the wooden slat (photo by Jon Bodsworth)

Using the same methodology Dixon discovered a matching shaft in the northern wall of the Queen’s Chamber, and was rewarded with an additional discovery.  In one of the shafts—he does not specify which but from the context it would seem to be QCN—Dixon found three artifacts:  a small copper hook measuring around 5cm, a small diorite ball, and a broken piece of wood about 13cm long.  Known as the Dixon Artifacts, these objects appear to be tools left behind by the ancient builders.

Diorite pounding tools were used to shape softer stone (photo by Scitim)

The Dixon Artifacts have themselves been the cause of speculation.  The wooden plank is missing, although it is thought to be somewhere in the Marischal Museum at Aberdeen (The Secret Doors Inside the Great Pyramid, by Zahi Hawass).  The diorite ball is similar to other spheres used by the ancient Egyptians to pound softer stone into shape.  The chisels used by the pyramid builders were made of copper, a soft metal that was only good for a dozen or so strokes against the local limestone, and which was totally useless against the red Aswan granite that was used in some of the structural elements of the pyramid (but see Comments below).  Diorite is harder than the red granite and was one of the tools of choice in the Old Kingdom period.

Rudolf Gantenbrink’s robot crawler, Upuaut-2, took this shot of an object in QCN that might correspond to the riveted hook recovered by Dixon. The track-like object is an iron rod abandoned by previous explorers (Photo by Rudolf Gantenbrink)

The copper hook (bronze by other accounts, cf. The Secret Doors Inside the Great Pyramid by Zahi Hawass) is of less obvious utility.  The hook has two rivets and might be related to another small rectangular object photographed by Rudolph Gantenbrink in QCN.  This latter object, which has yet to be recovered, appears to have two holes in it that might correspond to the rivets in the hook (The Upuaut Project—The Lower Northern Shaft).  It is not certain whether these objects were purposely left there by the ancient builders, or were dropped into the shaft at a point in construction when it was impossible to retrieve them.

But Dixon didn’t just recover some artifacts from QCN—he seems to have left a couple of his own.  Someone, presumably Dixon, used long iron rods to probe into the Queen’s Chamber northern shaft and several of these rods became stuck and were abandoned.  These more recent artifacts would be a vexation to the future missions into QCN, but more on that later.

Whatever we make of the iron rods, we can be certain that the Dixon Artifacts themselves are of ancient origin.  The shafts had been sealed on their lower end by the pyramid builders, and as we shall see, nobody dropped them in from above any time recently.  Dixon’s discovery of the Queen’s Chamber shafts and the artifacts therein was a major accomplishment, but it would be 120 years before another scientific mission would expand on his findings.

The Upuaut Project

The next phase of exploration originally began, somewhat inadvertently, as an effort to reduce the humidity levels in the Great Pyramid.  Humidity causes damage by allowing moisture to seep into the stone, causing it to expand.  Over time this can lead to major structural damage, so the Supreme Council of Antiquities had the idea that whether the shafts in the King’s Chamber were intended to for ventilation or not, they could potentially be used for that purpose.

Rudolf Gantenbrink

In 1989, a German engineer by the name of Rudolph Gantenbrink began working on a computer database to analyze the pyramids in an attempt to understand their construction.  It baffled Gantenbrink that, with all of the technological advances in recent years, and their potential for exploration, nobody seemed to be applying them to the mysteries of the Great Pyramid.

My engineer’s curiosity was aroused because there seemed to be so many questions and so few answers.  I just couldn’t get over the fact that we can fly to the moon and explore the depths of the oceans, but we can’t answer so many basic technical questions about the most exhaustively studied historical monument of all times.  (Rudolf Gantenbrink, The Upuaut Project—The Upuaut Story)

Rainer Stadelmann

Gantenbrink was particularly curious about the shafts.  As an engineer he appreciated the technical and mathematical genius behind creating these precise channels through a layered structure on such a grand scale and suspected they must have been an important part of Hemienu’s plan.  In 1990 he presented his analysis to the director of the German Archaeological Institute (GAI), Dr. Rainer Stadelmann.  Stadelmann was impressed with Gantenbrink’s work and met with him again in 1991, where Gantenbrink proposed revisiting the pyramid shafts with the best technology available.

A partnership was forged—Gantenbrink would make all of the technical arrangements, including the design of a robot crawler to explore the shafts, and Stadelmann would arrange all the permits through the GAI.  It was during this planning phase that the mission to explore the shafts became entangled with the ventilation project.  One of Gantenbrink’s early considerations was the possibility that the robot crawler might run into debris, and so planning for a cleaning operation would be a necessary part of the overall project.

Debris clogging KCN—before a robot survey mission or ventilation system could be installed, Gantenbrink would have to play the part of chimney sweep.

The SCA had also considered the need for cleaning out the shafts in the King’s Chamber as a part of installing the ventilation system, and Gantenbrink’s project sounded like a great opportunity to outsource this dusty undertaking.  In the process of negotiating the permits, somehow the installation of the ventilation system became a “rider” on the project to explore the shafts.  But for Rudolf Gantenbrink, all that mattered was that his project had received the go-ahead.  He arranged for a third party to design the ventilation system based on his database while he set about the task of designing the robot.

Rudolf Gantenbrink with “Father of Upuaut”

As it turned out, Gantenbrink would have to design a series of robots for his mission, The Upuaut Project.  The first robot, which was originally unnamed but came to be called Father of Upuaut, was made mostly of poly-carbonate plastic, had dual independently controllable tracks, and was mounted with a stationary forward-facing color video camera.  In March 1992, Gantenbrink prepared to deploy the robot into the Queen’s Chamber shafts, but soon discovered that the pressure from the chamber’s roof beams had caused the shafts to settle just enough that the robot was too tall—by half a centimeter.

One of the iron rods left in QCN, photographed by Father of Upuaut during its brief trip into the shaft.

Father of Upuaut was unable to make it much more than twelve meters into the Queen’s Chamber shafts, but had proven that they were not faux structures.  The predominant theory among Egyptologists at the time was that the shafts probably did not extend more than 3-4 meters before ending, an interesting position given that Waynman Dixon had managed to get his iron probing rods at least 12 meters (actually much farther) into QCN before getting stuck!  In addition to one of these rods, Father of Upuaut was able to transmit back photographic proof that there was much more to be explored in the Queen’s Chamber shafts.  Frustrated but wiser for the effort, Gantenbrink returned to Germany to begin work on a new robot.

Upuaut-1

The next robot Gantenbrink designed took only about four weeks to construct.  Dubbed Upuaut-1, this robot was actually a sled-mounted camera equipped with a special laser pointer/receiver capable of taking exact measurements of the shafts and the block joints.  Upuaut-1 was designed specifically for surveying the King’s Chamber shafts.  It had no treads or other independent propulsion and relied on a towing system that took advantage of the fact that the King’s Chamber shafts were open-ended, meaning the sled-bot could be towed from a pulley mounted on the surface of the pyramid.

Looking down Upuaut-1’s laser-mounted snout as it climbs KCS, the towing line is visible in the upper right corner of the shaft, the red laser surveying dot can be seen on the lower left wall.

Upuaut-1 was deployed into the King’s Chamber shafts in May of 1992, and other than a few minor snags unrelated to the sled-bot (a sand storm and a lost slip of paper with survey notes and measurements that had to be repeated), it performed brilliantly.  The shafts were cleared of debris, the survey completed, and the ventilation system was installed.  It was a success by all measures, literally.  Now Gantenbrink could return his attention to the Queen’s Chamber shafts, which would require a more sophisticated type of robot than Upuaut-1.

The sled-bot had worked for the King’s Chamber shafts, but without an opening to the surface there was no way to tow a similar robot through the Queen’s Chamber shafts.  The next generation of Upuaut would have to be independently propelled.  For his next robot Gantenbrink returned to a tread system, an over-and-under design that would allow the robot to extend tracks to both the floor and ceiling, giving it excellent power and leverage.  The new robot also had a new laser guidance system and a superior camera with pan and tilt.  It was also, incidentally, shorter than Father of Upuaut.

Irregularities such as this jutting wall section in QCS press on Upuaut-2 from all sides, but also yield discoveries such as the red mason’s mark visible along the edge of the block.

Upuaut-2 was deployed in March of 1993, and returned some of the most tantalizing discoveries since Dixon’s initial discovery of the shafts.  The little robot met no small amount of obstacles.  At one point Upuaut-2 proved to be too short for QCS, somewhat ironic given Father of Upuaut’s height difficulties, but this was fixed by using long slats to push the robot forward manually.  In QCN Upuaut-2 was turned back by a combination of a difficult 45-degree angle turn and one of the rods Dixon had left in the shaft, which itself had probably become snagged in the same turn.  Gantenbrink did not want to risk getting Upuaut-2 hopelessly entangled, so he decided to focus on QCS.

Mohammed Sheeha, Rudolf Gantenbrink, and Ulrich Kapp watch the monitor as Upuaut-2 makes history.

On March 22, 1993, Project Upuaut made its greatest discovery.  After climbing one last step at the 53 meter mark, Upuaut-2 came to a section where the masonry was clearly of higher quality than the team had observed anywhere else in the pyramid shafts.  But most exciting of all was the last obstacle of QCS—a block that promised to be more than just the end of the shaft, if it was the end indeed.

As we approach the slab, we can see two dark streaks on it, which upon closer inspection turn out to be copper fittings. And there is something else. The face of the inspector sitting next to me at the monitor has become chalk white. He draws my attention to two round, white marks on the copper fittings.  “These are seals, these are seals!” he exclaims, visibly shaken.  (The Upuaut Project—The 1993 Campaign)

The blocking slab, which would popularly come to be known as Gantenbrink’s Door, was a truly unique structure in the Great Pyramid (although, as we shall see later, there is a similar feature in QCN).  To begin with, the slab and part of the surrounding shaft are made of a different type of stone.  Most of the shaft is made of the same rough local limestone as most of the rest of the pyramid.  The shafts are formed by U-shaped blocks that resemble upside-down gutters that rest on flat base blocks.  The U-blocks, laid end-to-end on top of the base blocks, form the walls and ceilings of the shaft.

The final U-block and the blocking slab (Gantenbrink’s Door) that plugs it are both made from the lighter and finer Tura limestone that was used for the now mostly missing smooth facing stones that once covered the outer surface of the pyramid.  Gantenbrink noted that both the blocking slab and the final U-block were smoother and of higher craftsmanship than any of the other features of the pyramid shafts so far.

The upper-left corner of the “end” of QCS shows the higher quality of both the craftsmanship and the limestone, as well as the left-hand copper pin.

Regarding the roundish white “seals” that appeared to mark the slab behind the copper pins there was room for maybe-maybe-not.  Stadelmann, who seemed for whatever reason to have been distancing himself from the project by this point, insisted that Old Kingdom seals were created by rolling a pressing cylinder over a lump of clay, which would have looked nothing like what they were observing on the slab that sealed the shaft.  But Gantenbrink’s own research revealed that some Old Kingdom seals were made in gypsum, which might have looked similar to the white marks on the slab (The Upuaut Project—The 1993 Campaign).

The Upuaut Project had advanced the exploration of the shafts literally by leaps (over bumps and ledges) and bounds (up inclines and through breakdowns).  The SCA had gotten its ventilation system, and Gantenbrink had been able to explore the shafts as far as his robots and the legal permits would allow.  But the greatest obstacle would seem to have been a conflict of personalities.

For now, the mystery would remain.

Despite his original enthusiasm, Rainer Stadelmann had gradually cooled to Project Upuaut to the point where he rarely showed up on-site and seemed perpetually dissatisfied with Gantenbrink’s analyses and reports.  On March 28, 1993, just five days after the discovery of the blocking slab, Rudolph Gantenbrink withdrew from the joint venture and returned home.

For their part, the German Archaeological Institute seemed to lose interest in the pyramid shafts and the permits to continue the work seemed in danger of lapsing.  Was the work about to end just as things were getting really interesting?

The Pyramid Rover Project

The Upuaut Project provided some answers, and a lot more questions.  Gantenbrink’s Door presented us again with the Timeless Question—is this a functional part of the structure, or does it serve a symbolic purpose?  The copper “handles” certainly seemed to suggest that the block was movable, but how and by whom?  It was too small and too far within the pyramid to be accessible by people, and besides, both Queen’s Chamber shafts had been sealed up during the pyramid’s construction.  This later point seemed to exclude astrological purposes, and certainly ruled out the ventilation hypothesis.

Looking up QCS toward the blocking stone and the higher quality final (?) section of U-block.

The fact that the blocking slab was made of Tura limestone was interesting, but perhaps equally interesting was that the final U-block was of the same higher quality stone and workmanship.  The U-blocks were simply the walls and ceilings of the shafts and up to that point the local limestone had been suitable for the purpose.  Why was this final section of walls and ceiling given “the works”?  Was the blocking slab the end of the line for QCS, or was it really a door?

Zahi Hawass, who had initially been more skeptical than Stadelmann but had come to take an increasing interest in the shafts, knew that the only way to find out what was behind the slab would be to drill a hole in it and take a look—easier said than done, even for the chief of the Supreme Council of Antiquities.  All of the work permits had been arranged by Stadelmann and assigned to the GAI, who were no longer pursuing the project.  Egyptian law required that the permits be assigned to a university or similar research institution, so Gantenbrink could not pursue the work on his own.

Zahi Hawass

Hawass decided that the best work-around would be to have the SCA resume the project with himself assuming directorship.  He had a good relationship with National Geographic, and in 2001 contacted Tim Kelly, president of National Geographic’s television and film division, to assist with the next chapter in the drama of the pyramid shafts.  They agreed that the operation would be broadcast live on TV “in order to refute speculation about the withholding of information that has provided great interest to many people” (Hawass et. al, 2010, p. 204).

The Boston, MA, firm iRobot was commissioned to design and build the next robot crawler, aptly dubbed Pyramid Rover.  The Pyramid Rover shared some aspects with Upuaut-2’s mobility design, including a vertically expandable chassis with over-and-under treads that allowed it to grip the floor and ceiling.  The iRobot team tested the traction system by recreating the shaft conditions in their lab.  Wooden planks were mounted at the proper angle with limestone surfaces and every conceivable obstacle, from speed bumps to sand traps.

Pyramid Rover’s primary camera was top-mounted with some tilt capabilities and a wide-angle lighting array.  The robot also had a specially mounted drill that would, if feasible, bore a small hole through the blocking slab just large enough for its secondary camera, a fiber optic camera with its own LED light source, to slip inside and take a peek.

But before any drilling could take place, Pyramid Rover would first have to determine the thickness of the slab and find an optimal spot for the hole.  This was achieved with a specially modified concrete thickness gauge (CTG) designed by Olsen Engineering, Inc., a company specializing in nondestructive structural analysis.   CTG uses impact-echo analysis, a type of sonar that works by lightly tapping a surface and then measuring the impact response.  Pyramid Rover’s CTG sensor had its own wheels so it could be moved around the face of the slab while remaining flush to its surface.

The Pyramid Rover Project was divided into two phases.  Phase I would involve a number of reconnaissance missions spread out over eight days.  Pyramid Rover was first sent up QCS for preliminary analyses of the blocking slab and the copper pins.  Phase I revealed that the base (floor) and U-blocks of QCS suffered from deterioration, most of which was natural, but some of which was attributed to scuffing from Upuaut-2’s treads.  The team also discovered two crystals that were likewise attributed to modern contamination, most likely of the New Age variety.

Of more ancient origin, Pyramid Rover transmitted back images of red marks that were interpreted as cutting lines made by the ancient stoneworkers.  Phase I also provided a more complete picture of the copper pins, which were observed to be bent downward at a 90 degree angle, flattening them against the surface of the slab.  The whitish material that Gantenbrink suggested might have been a royal seal, on closer examination, appeared to be mortar used to secure the pins in the slab.  The Rover confirmed Gantenbrink’s description of the slab as smooth highly-worked limestone of higher quality than the local limestone.

(Left) Rover sent back images of cutting lines, including this block familiar from Upuaut-2’s trip up QCS. (Right) The Rover mission also confirmed Gantenbrink’s description of the blocking stone as smooth and highly worked, but the white circular marks were looking less like royal seals and more like mortar patches.

Two of Dixon’s metal rods

Pyramid Rover was next sent up the northern shaft with a goal of exploring beyond the turn that had prevented Upuaut-2 from progressing more than 19 meters.  Rover passed this test with flying colors and navigated two more bends at 22 and 25 meters, apparently designed to keep QCN from running into the Grand Gallery.  At 27 meters Pyramid Rover encountered another modern obstacle—two more metal rods of the type Waynman Dixon had used to probe into the shaft more than a century before.  Rover could go no further into QCN at this time, having become snagged on Dixon’s now-infamous iron rods, but transmitted video showing that the shaft continued after yet another turn.

Phase II had similar objectives to Phase I:

The goals of this phase were very similar to that of the first; determine the thickness of the blocking stone in QCS, determine what was behind the blocking stone, study the metal pins on the opposite side of the block, discern the purpose of the blocking stone, and investigate the terminus of QCN.  (Hawass et. al, 2010, p. 205).

On September 16 (Cairo time), 2002, Pyramid Rover climbed QCS and deployed its echo-impact probe, which tapped ever so lightly on the door and listened…  After taking multiple readings it was determined that the slab was just 5-9cm thick, well within the capabilities of the drill and probe-mounted camera.  Whatever was on the other side, Rover would be able to fetch.  The decision was made to drill the hole, 2 cm in diameter, and proceed with the mission.  The following day, with National Geographic broadcasting live, the fiber optic camera was inserted into the hole and 4,500 years into the past.

After drilling the peep-hole (left) Pyramid Rover returned with the probe camera deployed (right).

At about 18 cm from the first slab was another block.  Unlike Gantenbrink’s Door, this block was more rough cut, appeared to be of the local yellow limestone, and had no features like the copper handles, just what appeared to be cracks.  There were two possible takes on this discovery.  It might mean that Pyramid Rover had come to the end of the line—that after an ornate faux block the shaft ended with the core stone that makes up the bulk of the pyramid’s solid structure.  The other, more optimistic take was that this was a second sealing block with something else beyond.  Understandably, Dr. Hawass opted for the later.

“What’s this…? We can see another sealed door. It has cracks… It’s another sealed door! It’s another space, another sealed door, but it looks to me we have a discovery.” (Zahi Hawass, National Geographic Pyramids Live: Secret Chambers Revealed)

But Hawass’ optimism was not unfounded.  Yes, the opposite “wall” did appear to be a rough-cut block of local yellow limestone rather than the Tura limestone of the first blocking slab and the surrounding U-block, but so was the rest of the shaft preceding the door.   There was no reason to assume the shaft could not continue on the other side as it had leading up to the small chamber.  And it did appear to be a chamber.  If the door had been a facing stone, why the 18 cm gap?  The space inside seemed to be intentional.

Hawass also pointed to the large chip in the bottom of the rough block, just right of the center.  It appears that the floor of the shaft continues under the block, which would not be the case if the shaft came to an end against the core masonry.  Although it was not certain by any stretch, a reasonable argument could be made for the block on the opposite side of the chamber being something that was inserted into the shaft, like a cork in a bottle, rather than something pressed against the shaft’s end, like a lid on a jar.

Unfortunately, the Rover’s probe-mounted camera had no tilt or pan capabilities, and the LEDs did not provide enough ambient light to tell much about the inside of the chamber.  The fixed mounting also meant that the camera could not look back at the backside of the door, so there was no way of knowing if the metal pins continued on the other side.  In some ways, it was like a high-tech version of the rigid wires Waynman Dixon had inserted into the masonry of the Queen’s Chamber to discover the shafts—they knew there was something back there, they just couldn’t say for sure what without being able to take a better look.

A new frontier? A third blocking stone in QCN

But the Pyramid Rover Project wasn’t quite finished yet.  Three more trips were made up the northern shaft, and this time Pyramid Rover made it past the metal rods that had stalled it at 27 meters.  Pushing up the slope, at 63 meters they discovered another blocking slab nearly identical to the one found in QCS, metal pins included.  Another interesting discovery was made between 18 and 21 meters within QCN—a plain piece of paper and a ticket for the Sphinx and pyramids!  Although modern contamination was expected, this was a fairly good distance into the shaft for these light objects to be discovered, considering that airflow is limited by the blocking slabs.

Charles Piazzi Smyth’s quest for the sacred geometry of Noah and Waynman Dixon’s chisels and iron rods may seem anachronistic by the standards of today, but they undoubtedly paved the way for Upuaut-2 and Pyramid Rover.  Far be it from us to judge the shoulders upon which we stand.  The next step into the pyramid shafts would build not only on the adventures we have covered here, it would pull together some of the most brilliant minds in fields as far reaching as scientific 3D simulation and virtual reality development, search and rescue technology, even space exploration.  Prepare to meet Djedi, and with apologies to George Lucas, the Force will be strong with this one.

Works Cited

• Zahi Hawass, Shaun Whitehead, TC Ng, Robert Richardson, Andrew Pickering, Stephen Rhodes, Ron Grieve, Adrian Hildred, Mehdi Tayoubi and Richard Breitner.  “First report: video survey of the southern shaft of the Queen’s Chamber in the Great Pyramid.”  Annales du Service des AntiquitÉs de l’Égypte.  Tome 84, 2010.  Pp. 203-16.
• Pyramids Live: Secret Chambers Revealed.  Dir. Cynthia Page.  National Geographic Television & Film, 2003. DVD.

Copyright by Keith Payne, 2012.  All rights reserved.

Photograph Modern Egyptian shows the use of Diorite balls as carving tools for granite, at Aswan by Scitim is used in accordance with the GNU Free Documentation License.  All images watermarked “Copyright Rudolf Gantenbrink” are from the official Upuaut Project website, and are the property of Rudolf Gantenbrink, all rights reserved.  All images watermarked “National Geographic” are copyrighted by National Geographic, all rights reserved.  Copyright law allows limited use of copyrighted material under the fair use doctrine, to whit, “[A] reviewer may fairly cite largely from the original work, if his design be really and truly to use the passages for the purposes of fair and reasonable criticism.”  The copyrighted material reproduced in this article is used for the sole purpose of discussing and documenting the history of these various projects and does not seek to compete with the originals, prejudice their sale, or diminish their profits, or supersede the objects, of the original work.  The positions of the originals are, as much as possible, represented fairly and accurately with no speculation attributed, implicitly or explicitly, to the creators of the originals, nor is it suggested, implicitly or explicitly, that the creators of the originals have endorsed this article or its contents.  Having said such, if you are the owner of the copyright to any of the material reproduced within this article it is not the intent of Em Hotep or any of its agents to violate your rights as the owner, and if you feel your rights have been violated and request that said material be modified or removed, it is the policy of Em Hotep, where it is reasonable to do so, to comply with said requests.  All other images are in the public domain and are not subject to copyright law.

Mummy forensics

In this installment of the Em Hotep mummy series (which will eventually become the Mummy Section) we will take a look at the terms and concepts related to the various methods Egyptologists use to study mummies with links to carefully selected websites and articles to further your own investigation.  Whether you are working on a term paper or just interested in mummies, this primer will get you started.

And just a quick note—some of the subheadings in this primer, such as the part on facial reconstruction, will have their own more detailed sections that will include more media, as well as original interviews, so stay tuned!

The Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines forensics as:

1:  belonging to, used in, or suitable to courts of judicature or to public discussion and debate

2:  argumentative, rhetorical

3:  relating to or dealing with the application of scientific knowledge to legal problems

While there are certainly legal issues to be considered when conducting analyses on mummified human remains, that is not really what we mean by mummy forensics.  But this definition is still useful to our discussion.  Let’s break it down.

1:  Mummy forensics will not necessarily prepare you for your day in legal court, but it does prepare you to discuss and debate about mummies in the court of academia and public opinion.  The first is important if you want to earn a degree or publish a study.  The latter is important if you want to get funding for your work!

2:  Mummy forensics is often argumentative, as when the results challenge long-held theories, and can become rather rhetorical when it challenges long-held opinions.  You generally aim for the former and try to limit the latter.  Challenging established theories is how science moves forward, by either confirming or refuting the results of previous work.  However, Egyptology can be notoriously personal at times, so maybe having your rhetoric in order isn’t such a bad idea after all.

3:  Mummy forensics is all about the application of scientific knowledge to answering questions, preferably without legal problems.

So mummy forensics is a little like a cross between CSI and House with an occasional dash of reality TV, and a whole lot of really technical and scientific know-how.  In other words, it’s kind of like the Mummy Forensics TV show, with all of the hours and hours and hours of work that is normally edited out, left in.

In this introduction we will outline the different methods Egyptologists use to study mummies, their strengths and weaknesses, and the general terms and concepts of the field.  Each section will be followed by links to relevant websites and articles to help you explore further.  A great introduction to this subject is Medical Science and Egyptology, by Rosalie David, and this primer might be thought of as an annotated outline of her article.

If you wish to go to the source, and you are strongly encouraged to do so, it comprises the third chapter of Richard H. Wilkinson’s Egyptology Today (Cambridge University Press, 2008).  For a more complete treatment see The Mummy’s Tale (St. Martin’s Press, 1993), by Rosalie David and Edmund Tapp.

Before we begin I should mention that while the outline is written with the general reader in mind, the links to outside sources will range from kid-appropriate to post doctorate.  Additionally, some sections of the outline can get fairly technical.  While most of us know what x-rays are and how they might be useful to mummy studies, some of us (myself included) might glaze over a bit when it comes to, say, immunohistochemisty.  That’s ok, there will be no pop quiz.

But like any investigation, you might find that some of the more daunting terms break down pretty easily.  Paleo-odontology might sound like some wing’d saurian beast ready to swoop down and carry you away to her nest, but in actuality it’s just the study (ology) of really old (paleo) teeth (odont).  And that is worth knowing because the study of teeth is an important part of any mummy study.  Don’t let xenoglossophobia push you around!  Learn and enjoy!

Autopsy

Unwrapping and dissecting a mummy, followed by a visual and physical examination of the body (morbid anatomy).

Margaret Murray (foreground) performing an autopsy on a mummy under the watchful eyes of Flinders Petrie (far left), such unwrappings were a one-way trip for the mummy (courtesy of University of Manchester)

Provides more detailed information than less invasive methods

Allows researchers to take physical samples from any part of the mummy

Destructive and irreversible—once a mummy is dissected, you can’t put it back together

Usually only performed on mummies that were already in a poor condition, nevertheless there are ethical and cultural considerations to performing an autopsy on ancient human remains

• Taking the Wraps off Mummy by staff (New Scientist, June 19, 1975, via Google Books)

Last week marked the start of an extensive examination of mummies in the Manchester Museum by a medical team led by Dr. Rosalie David, assistant keeper of the Museum’s archaeological department…the most special treatment is being given to Mummy No. 1770, the unwrapping of which began last week.

Radiology

The use of X-rays to examine the internal contents of sarcophagi and mummies, radiology provides archaeological, sociological, and biomedical information about mummies.

Tori Randall, curator for the Department of Physical Anthropology at the San Diego Museum of Man, CT scanning a 550-year-old mummy of a child (courtesy of U.S. Navy)

Fluoroscopy—the transmission of images from x-ray to a television screen

Tomography—X-rays of a section or slice of tissue on a plane allowing more detailed information about specific areas of the mummy

Computed tomography (CT) scan—the use of computers to assemble tomographic images into a highly detailed navigable 3D rendering of the internal structures of a mummy or sarcophagus

Minimally invasive and non-destructive, radiography is the primary means of studying mummies

Allows skeletal maturity and development to be evaluated, but…

Genetic and nutritional differences can make age and development determinations in ancient skeletons difficult when based on modern comparisons—modern humans are generally bigger

Can show disease and trauma in skeletal and soft tissue

Open to misinterpretation—for example, radiology cannot distinguish between trauma and post-mortem effects of the process of mummification itself, but…

Can also help with the interpretation of the mummification process by showing natron packets, pooled resin, positioning of the arms, etc.

Requires medical specialists to conduct and assist with the interpretation of the results, making it an interdisciplinary pursuit by necessity

Limited in-situ applications, although this is changing as the technology and methodology improves

Enhances data gained by other methods such as dental studies and endoscopy

Helps make forensic facial reconstructions possible

• Modern Examination of Mummies (KingTutOne.com)

Modern times are allowing us to examine mummies in a different way—through x-ray analysis, CAT scanning, and DNA testing. The times of opening a mummy physically have faded in the past and now much of the work is done through advancements in technology. New technological advancements are allowing us to peel back the layers digitally, thus, giving us a view of the preservation process without destroying any evidence.

• Inside the Mummies (Birmingham Museum and Art Gallery—BM & AG For Kids)

The Ancient Egyptians mummified the dead because they believed it helped the soul find its body in the afterlife…Let’s discover more by looking at three REAL mummies’ photos and x-rays.

• That’s a wrap: mummies undergo non-cutting cutting-edge examinations at The Neuro by Neale McDevitt (McGill Reporter, May 5, 2011)

For years mummies were studied by means of an autopsy – very informative, but very destructive. The CT scanner allows us to undertake a virtual dissection – yielding huge amounts of information, but also leaving the mummy intact for future people to see and to analyze in ways we can’t yet imagine.

• X-ray unearths mummy mystery by staff (The Sun, October 6, 2011)

An X-ray on the 2,500-year-old boy, who was on display at Torquay museum, revealed that the coffin is 1,000 years older than the mummy inside…And it has raised the possibility that the child, named Psamtek by staff, was not the first occupant.

• Mummies share their secrets by Gail Skroback Hennessey (Science News for Kids, October 26, 2011)

The Field Museum in Chicago is using CT scans to learn more about mummies in its collection. These X-ray reconstructions helped confirm the age and gender of seven Egyptian and three Peruvian mummies along with details on the contents and construction of their coffins…One Egyptian mummy looked great from the outside. But the scans turned up that this particular set of remains had no hips, arms or torso.

• New x-ray tech uncovers clues on mummy’s fractures by Claire B. Salling (The Chicago Maroon, January 9, 2009)

For Meresamun, a female Egyptian mummy and one of the Oriental Institute’s main attractions, the afterlife proved to be much harsher than her time growing up as a member of her country’s elite. A high-ranking and wealthy priestess in the temple of Amun, king of the ancient Egyptian gods, Meresamun suffered several fractured bones after her death, according to discoveries made by U of C radiologist Michael Vannier using new x-ray technology.

• Common and Unexpected Findings in Mummies from Ancient Egypt and South America as Revealed by CT by Christian Jackowski, Stephen Bollinger, and Michael J. Thali (Radiographics, September 2008)

Computed tomography (CT) has proved to be a valuable investigative tool for mummy research and is the method of choice for examining mummies. It allows for noninvasive insight, especially with virtual endoscopy, which reveals detailed information about the mummy’s sex, age, constitution, injuries, health, and mummification techniques used. CT also supplies three-dimensional information about the scanned object.

• 3-D reconstruction of an ancient Egyptian mummy using x-ray computer tomography by C. Baldock, S. W. Hughes, D. K. Whittaker, J. Taylor, R. Davis, A. J. Spencer, K. Tonge, A. Sofat (Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, December 1994)

Computer tomography has been used to image and reconstruct in 3-D an Egyptian mummy from the collection of the British Museum. This study of Tjentmutengebtiu, a priestess from the 22nd dynasty (945-715 BC) revealed invaluable information of a scientific, Egyptological and paleopathological nature without mutilation and destruction of the painted cartonage case or linen wrappings.

Paleo-odontology

Forensic dentistry which allows researchers to collect both social and physiological data from mummified or skeletal remains.

Mummy teeth can tell us about the age, diet, habits, lifestyle, and social class of people who lived thousands of years ago (courtesy of the Rosicrucian Museum)

Includes the study of ancient bread samples, textual evidence regarding diet, and how ancient dentistry was practiced

Can be conducted on skulls, however, the presence of soft tissue obviously will provide more information

Generally more accessible—Skulls and mummified heads are fairly portable (with proper permits, of course)

Direct examination of the teeth and gums can help interpret data garnered by other methods, particularly radiography

Can help determine the cause of death—evidence of multiple dental abscesses, for example, in an otherwise healthy person indicates septicemia (blood poisoning) as a probable cause of death

Can indicate diet changes in broad populations.  For example, tooth decay was rare during pharaonic times, but became more widespread during the Graeco-Roman Period, which could suggest dietary changes, cultural infusion, new trade routes, etc.

Helps with age determination

Provides evidence of early dentistry, such as resin fillings and lanced infected cysts

• Introduction to Dental Anthropology by C. L. Johnson (University of Illinois at Chicago, College of Dentistry)

Dental Anthropology is the study of teeth in a perspective beyond clinical science. That perspective includes the study of dental growth, theories on dental origin, primate dentition, and population variation.

• Tooth decay killed the mummy by Katie Heller (NBC—Connecticut, March 25, 2010)

Scientists on Thursday revealed another detail about the 4,000 year old mummy, Pa-lb, which is pronounced paw eeeb. On Wednesday, doctors from the University of Connecticut Dental School examined the mummy’s ancient teeth and found that extreme periodontal disease is what probably killed her.

• Bad teeth tormented ancient Egyptians by Rosella Lorenzi (Discovery News, December 3, 2009)

After examining research of more than 3,000 mummies, anatomists and paleopathologists at the University of Zurich concluded that 18 percent of all mummies in case reports showed a nightmare array of dental diseases.

• Egypt’s female pharaoh revealed by chipped tooth, experts say by Dan Morrison (National Geographic News, June 27, 2007)

A broken tooth has become the key to identifying the mummy of Hatshepsut, the woman who ruled ancient Egypt as both queen and king nearly 3,500 years ago.

Endoscopy

A virtually (but not quite) non-destructive method of viewing and obtaining tissue, bone, and other samples from inside a mummy, endoscopy allows the examination by use of an endoscope, a medical device consisting of a long, thin tube which has a probe, lens, and light source on one end and an eye piece, monitor, and mummy researcher on the other.

Dr. Michael Mosely and Rosalie David perform an endoscopy on a mummy (courtesy of BBC Two)

Modern endoscopes are attached to a screen or camera

Older endoscopes use a microscope-style eyepiece and are more portable, but technological advances (smaller cameras) are making older endoscopes obsolete

Medical endoscopes are flexible and more capable of moving throughout the mummy, but less flexible industrial endoscopes are also used because they are more capable of penetrating rigid mummified tissue

Endoscopes can be inserted through existing openings (natural orifices and holes from the mummification process and other post-mortem trauma) which helps minimize further damaging the mummy

Retrieval forceps at the end of the probe allow tissue samples to be taken from within the mummy which would otherwise require an autopsy

Can reveal details regarding the mummification process, such as whether the entrails were returned to the body in natron packs rather than stored in canopic jars, how resin was used throughout the body, whether the brain was extracted, and other details that, when compared to what we know about mummification procedures during different periods, can help determine the age of the mummy as well as provide details about social class

Does not provide as much access as a full autopsy

Can also be useful for peering into sarcophagi and other structures with small openings

• Mummies undergo CT scan and endoscopy at Lankenau Medical Center (Mummies of the World—The Exhibition)

As part of the ground breaking Mummies of the World exhibition’s arrival in Philadelphia, doctors and researchers utilized state-of-the-art medical technology to perform a non-invasive computerized tomography (CT) scan and laparoscopic endoscopy on a South American  infant  mummy and Hungarian adult female mummy, respectively, at Lankenau Medical Center on Thursday, June 9, 2011.

• Endoscopic investigation of the internal organs of a 15th-century child mummy from Yangju, Korea by Seok Bae Kim, Jeong Eun Shin, Sung Sil Park, Gi Dae Bok, Young Pyo Chang, Jaehyup Kim, Yoon Hee Chung, Yang Su Yi, Myung Ho Shin, Byung Soo Chang, Dong Hoon Shin, and Myeung Ju Kim (Journal of Anatomy, November 2006)

Because invasive techniques cannot easily be applied when investigating such mummies, the need for non-invasive techniques incurring minimal damage has increased among researchers. Therefore, we wished to confirm whether endoscopy, which has been used in non-invasive and minimally invasive studies of mummies around the world, is an effective tool for study of Korean mummies as well.

• Baptist East helps explore mummy’s secrets by staff (Baptist Hospital East, June 2004)

Gastroenterologist Martin Mark, M.D., assisted by Celine Vollmer, Endoscopy nurse manager, performed an endoscopy on the mummy’s skull and upper torso…The scope revealed a heart and brain inside the mummy — a pleasant surprise to everyone — since traditionally many of the organs were usually removed during mummification.

• Modern imaging and endoscopic biopsy techniques in Egyptian mummies by Derek N. H. Notman, Joseph Tashjian, Arthur C. Aufderheide, Oliver W. Cass, Orrin C. Shane lll, Thomas H. Berquist, Joel E. Gray, Eugene Gedgaudas (American Journal of Roentgenology, January 1986)

One individual was selected for additional endoscopic and microscopic correlation with CT findings in the thoracic cavity. The collapsed heart was identified by CT. A percutaneous biopsy of the heart was then performed with a flexible fiberoptic endoscope, passed through a small hole drilled into the chest wall.

Paleopathology

The study of disease in ancient populations.

CT scan analysis of the 3,500-year-old mummy of Ahmose-Meryet-Amon, a Theban princess who died in her 40’s, revealed she suffered from hardening of the arteries (Courtesy of National Geographic)

Analysis of bone and mummified tissue can provide a wealth of information about diet, lifestyle, and disease

Morbid anatomy—visual (eyes only) examination of the body

Histopathology—the study of changes in the tissue cause by disease

Histopathology can also reveal details about the mummification process, such as how the tissues were affected by preservatives like natron

Histology—the use of light microscopy to show the microscopic structure of tissue and any changes caused by disease

Electron microscopy—the use of a beam of electrons to illuminate tissue in order to render a highly detailed image and extremely fine structural details, can also reveal such things as the presence of heavy metals in bone and other tissue

Immunohistochemistry—the use of specialized staining agents to increase the likelihood of identifying cell constituents in tissue

Paleohistology—the use of histological techniques to study ancient tissue, the tissue must first be rehydrated and fixed then frozen and cut into slices which can be stained for microscopic analysis

Limited by the usefulness of the tissue sample being analyzed—there is no way of knowing if the sample contains useful data until it is under the scope, and analyzing useless samples is as expensive and time consuming as analyzing useful ones

• The Paleopathology Association

The Paleopathology Association is composed of researchers, scientists, and students from many fields, including physical anthropology, medicine, archaeology, and Egyptology from around the world.

• Mummies and Disease in Ancient Egypt by C. L. Johnson (University of Illinois at Chicago, College of Dentistry)

Health, disease, and culture are studied in medical anthropology both from a comparative and historical perspective. Mummies and the diseases they reveal offer insight into the past; they are time travelers from another age. Diagnosis via paleopathology is difficult; however, considerable success has been achieved in uncovering afflictions from the past. Infectious, congenital, neoplastic (cancer), and traumatic conditions are all present in abundance.

• Deciphering Disease in Ancient Mummies (PBS-Secrets of the Pharaohs)

By taking x-rays, we can see fractures, the degeneration of bone from osteoarthritis — which was very common among the Egyptians — and make assumptions about lifestyle and diet. Muscles leave an imprint on bone telling how big they were and how much they were used, which can provide information as well.

• Paleopathological evaluation and radiological study of 46 Egyptian mummified specimens in Italian museums by Valentina Giuffra, Donata Pangoli, Paola Cosmancini, Davide Caramella, Flora Silvano, Gino Fornaciari, Rosalba Ciranni (Egitto e Vicino Oriente, 2009)

Paleopathology and radiology both provide a quantity of data about the health status of past populations, in addition to the body conservation techniques adopted.

Immunological Techniques

The use of radiographic and direct microscopic analysis of tissue to diagnose disease in mummies.

Using immunological techniques, researchers were able to isolate specific chemicals responsible for the transmission of nerve disease in the spine of a 3,000-year-old mummy (Courtesy of C. H. V. Hoyle)

Limited by access to radiographic equipment which is usually only available in a hospital and requires assistance from doctors and technicians in the medical field

To be useful the tissue must contain evidence such as parasites or other histological information

Does not require large individual samples and thus can be applied to a larger number of samples

Unlike living tissue, detection of antibodies (important in identifying disease) in ancient tissue is extremely difficult, and so researchers are usually limited to looking for signs of antigens associated with worms, eggs, and other parasitical remains

Immunocytochemistry—a method of looking for antigens in a tissue sample by targeting specific protein antigens to see if the sample expresses the antigen in question.  For example, looking for remaining antigens associated with a particular parasite that could lead to identifying an otherwise undetectable disease

• The state of the art of paleoparasitological research in the old world by Françoise Bouchet, Stéphanie Harter, Matthieu Le Bailly (Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, January 2003)

Paleoparasitology in the Old World has mainly concerned the study of latrine sediments and coprolites collected from mummified bodies or archaeological strata, mostly preserved by natural conditions. Human parasites recovered include cestodes, trematodes, and nematodes. The well preserved conditions of helminth eggs allowed paleoepidemiological approaches taking into account the number of eggs found by archaeological stratum. Tentatively, sanitation conditions were assessed for each archaeological period.

• Mummy DNA Reveals Birth of Ancient Scourge by David Biello (Scientific American, October 6, 2006)

Centuries of silence cannot keep ancient Egyptian mummies from sharing their secrets with scientists. From archaeologists determining cultural practices to chemists studying embalming, mummies have revealed libraries of information. Now such mummies are also yielding evidence about the diseases of the past by giving up the facts encoded in their preserved DNA, and new research may have pinned down the ancient homeland of a modern scourge.

• The diagnosis of schistosomiasis in modern and ancient tissues by means of immunocytochemistry by Patricia Rutherford (Chungara, Revista de Antropología Chilena, 2000)

Although Schistosoma worms infect millions of people today they were evident in ancient Egyptian times, with one of the classic symptoms “haematuria” being described in various medical papyri.  A current epidemiology study means diagnostic tools that can be applied to ancient dehydrated tissues are now needed.  To overcome this immunocytochemistry has been used, producing positive staining to S. Mansoni and haematobium antigens in both modern and ancient tissues, suggesting that Schistosoma antigens may still be present after thousands of years.

• The use of immunological techniques in the analysis of archaeological materials by Margaret E. Newman, Howard Ceri, Brian Kooyman (Antiquity, September 1996)

This paper responds to Eisele (1994) and Eisele et al. (1995), which question the preservation of protein residues on archaeological lithic tools and the detection and characterization of such proteins, if they do indeed survive.

DNA Analysis and Paleoserology

The study of genetics and blood groups in ancient remains.

A major genetic study concluded in 2010 and published in the Journal of the American Medical Association proposed to identify disease and trace the familial lines of Tutankhamun and other Eighteenth Dynasty dignitaries, but raised as many questions as it answered

Allows tracing of kinship patterns and population movements

Paleoserology is not considered as reliable as it once was, with genetic studies being the preferred method of tracing kinship and migration today

Only small amounts of bone or tissue are required for genetic analysis

Ancient DNA is hard to sample as it survives in very small quantities and is often rendered useless due to damage, decay, and contamination

To reiterate, contamination of the sample is VERY difficult to prevent, as the sample is by definition extremely old and may have been handled in modern times before strict protocols were set in place.  Might be compared to trying to analyze a crime scene in a subway station.

The mummification process itself tends to render DNA samples useless

Mummies from newly excavated sites and museums where strict handling protocols have been in place are best candidates for DNA analysis

Can help determine the sex of a mummy, familial relations, and ultimately can help produce a database that showing origins, migration patterns, and composition of ancient societies

Can provide information about infectious and parasitic diseases in ancient populations

• Population Genetics by C. L. Johnson (University of Illinois at Chicago, College of Dentistry)

Populations are a group of interbreeding individuals and all of the alleles found in that population are referred to as the gene pool. While all members of Homo sapiens are capable of interbreeding, mate choice is in our lives is really quite limited. Factors that determine with whom we mate are geographical, ecological, and social.  Within a population, geneticists are concerned with gene frequencies for specific traits.

• Extracting mummy DNA (PBS-Secrets of the Pharaohs)

Egypt’s mummies are among the best preserved of all ancient remains, but even in them the recovery of DNA — the genetic fingerprint of every individual — is insidiously difficult. Molecular biologist Scott Woodward of Brigham Young University may know this better than anyone; he and his lab recovered the DNA from hundreds of Egyptian mummies, from commoners to pharaohs.

• Ancestry and pathology in King Tutankhamun’s family by Zahi Hawass, Yehia Z. Gad, Somaia Ismail, Rabab Khairat, Dina Fathalla, Naglaa Hasan, Amal Ahmed, Hisham Elleithy, Markus Ball, Fawzi Gaballah, Sally Wasef, Mohamed Fateen, Hany Amer, Paul Gostner, Ashraf Selim, Albert Zink, Carsten M. Pusch (Journal of American Medical Association, 2010)

The New Kingdom in ancient Egypt, comprising the 18th, 19th, and 20th dynasties, spanned the mid-16th to the early 11th centuries BC. The late 18th dynasty, which included the reigns of pharaohs Akhenaten and Tutankhamun, was an extraordinary time. The identification of a number of royal mummies from this era, the exact relationships between some members of the royal family, and possible illnesses and causes of death have been matters of debate.

• DNA shows that KV55 mummy probably not Akhenaten by Kate Phizackerley (News from the Valley of the Kings, March 2, 2010)

The paper Ancestry and Pathology in King Tutankhamun’s Family by Hawass al…states that the mummy in KV55 is “probably” Akhenaten…The media has accepted the attribution as affirmed fact, although the attribution has attracted considerable comment and debate with a number of writers questioning the forensic data.  I believe, however, that the correct focus of dissent to the attribution should be the STR analysis which shows that the KV55 mummy is highly unlikely to be Akhenaten and that an alternative family tree is a better fit to the genetic findings of the Hawass study.

• Ancient DNA: curse of the Pharaoh’s DNA by Jo Marchant (Nature, April 27, 2011)

Some researchers claim to have analysed DNA from Egyptian mummies.  Others say that’s impossible. Could new sequencing methods bridge the divide?

• Study:  malaria, not murder, killed King Tut by Michael D. Lemonick (Time Science, February 16, 2010)

Among the results: King Tut was probably not murdered, despite some popular theories to the contrary. And he probably didn’t suffer from a long list of diseases that experts have speculated about, including, as the report lists them (deep breath), “Marfan syndrome, Wilson-Turner X-linked mental retardation syndrome, Fröhlich syndrome, Klinefelter syndrome, androgen insensitivity syndrome, aromatase excess syndrome in conjunction with sagittal craniosynostosis syndrome or Antley-Bixler syndrome or a variant form.”

• 3,500-year-old-mummy to get DNA test by staff (CBS News, February 11, 2009)

Egypt plans to conduct a DNA test on a 3,500-year-old mummy to determine if it is King Thutmose I, one of the most important pharaohs, the country’s chief archaeologist said Thursday.  Zahi Hawass, Egypt’s antiquities chief, said the DNA test and an X-ray will be carried out on a mummy found at the site of ancient Thebes on the west bank of the Nile, what is today Luxor’s Valley of the Kings, the Middle East News Agency reported.

Instrumental Methods of Analysis

The use of techniques such as mass spectrometry and gas chromatography to study artifacts such linen wrappings, cosmetic and therapeutic substances and plants buried with the mummy, as well as the mummy itself, such as hair and fatty tissue analysis.

Bad girl or just misunderstood? When gas-chromatography—mass spectrometry revealed the presence of cocaine and nicotine in Henut Taui's system, two drugs that should not have been on that side of the Atlantic during her lifetime, much controversy ensued (courtesy of BBC/Channel Four)

Mass spectrometry is a powerful analytical technique that is used to identify unknown compounds, to quantify known compounds, and to elucidate the structure and chemical properties of molecules (source: American Society for Mass Spectrometry).

Methods such as gas-liquid spectrometry allows researchers to isolate the individual ingredients of the resin and other funerary/embalming substances

Identification and examination of psychoactive and narcotic substances with instrumental methods within specific contexts allows the study of drug use in ancient populations for medical, religious, and social purposes

Instrumental surveys with techniques such as radioimmunoassay and gas-chromatography—mass spectrometry can identify substances that are not native to the local area, which helps identify relations (such as trade) with other distant cultures

As with DNA analysis, contamination of samples is a persistent problem

• Mass spectrometry: deciphering the elements (PBS-Secrets of the Pharaohs)

For the most part, the techniques scientists use to identify narcotics and other drugs from the hair and tissue of a mummy and chemical compounds from a plant like the Egyptian blue lotus…are the same. Researchers Vic Garner and David Counsell of the University of Manchester relied on a sophisticated version of a common chemical analysis technique: mass spectrometry.

• The importance of the hair in ancient Egyptian society (Outline Science, August 22, 2011)

Ancient Egyptians styled their hair using a fat-based ‘gel’…Microscopy using light and electrons revealed that nine of the mummies had hair coated in a mysterious fat-like substance. The gas chromatography–mass spectrometry was used to separate out the different molecules in the samples, and found that the coating contained biological long-chain fatty acids including palmitic acid and stearic acid.

• Fatty acid composition and preservation of the Tyrolean Iceman and other mummies by Athanasios Makristathis, Josef Schwarzmeier, Robert M. Mader, Kurt Varmuza, Ingrid Simonitsch, Jose Chavez Chavez, Werner Platzer Hans Unterdorfer, Richard Scheithauer, Anatoly Derevianko, Horst Seidler (Journal of Lipid Research, December 2002)

In anthropology, objective parameters to adequately describe storage conditions and the preservation of mummies have yet to be identified. Considering that fatty acids degrade to stable products, we analysed their profile in human mummies and in control samples by gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC/MS).

• American drugs in Egyptian mummies: a review of the evidence by S. A. Wells (Colorado State University, no date)

The recent findings of cocaine, nicotine, and hashish in Egyptian mummies by Balabanova et. al. have been  criticized on grounds that: contamination of the mummies may have occurred, improper techniques may have been used, chemical decomposition may have produced the compounds in question, recent mummies of drug users were mistakenly evaluated, that no similar cases are known of such compounds in long-dead bodies, and especially that pre-Columbian transoceanic voyages are highly speculative.

• Analysis of an Egyptian mummy resin by mass spectrometry by Mark L. Proefke and Kenneth L. Rinehart (Journal of the American Society for Mass Spectrometry, July 1992)

Archaeologists  have  long  found  themselves faced  with  the  difficult  problem  of  identifying unknown  materials  in  organic  remains.  Of all the  organic  remains  studied,  resins  are  among  the most  common.  Resins  have  been  used  throughout antiquity  as  coatings,  as  in  jars  and  vessels,  and  as adhesives,  as  in  Egyptian  mummy  wrappings.

Forensic Facial Reconstruction

A process originally developed to assist in criminal investigations to help identify skeletal remains, these procedures have been adapted to put a recognizable face on ancient mummies

Early facial reconstructions involved putting clay or wax on a cast of the skull, but were limited to skulls where mummified tissue and wrappings were not an impediment

More recently, CT scans have been used to create detailed polystyrene replicas of skulls without the tissue and wrappings

Even more recently, computerized 3D modeling is revolutionizing how forensic facial reconstructions are done

One problem is that there will always be a certain degree of subjectivity in these recreations, which has caused some to question how reliable these reconstructions are, but on the other hand, criminal “cold cases” have been closed based on reconstructions of the more recently deceased, using the same methods and instruments

• Mummy forensic facial reconstruction at Reading Public Museum exhibit by Jan Feighner (Examiner-Philadelphia, February 1, 2010)

The reconstruction process began with a CT scan, which provided digital information used to develop a skull model. Then he employed rapid prototyping, technology that automatically constructs physical models from Computer-Aided Design (CAD) data, which is printed similar to a sculpture of itself. Elias reproduced her skull through 3D printing and sent a copy of the data set to the University of Manitoba, Winnipeg that created an actual model of Nefrina’s skull.

• Getting by on her looks:  Using crystal-clear 3-D images from Meresamun’s historic scans, two forensic artists reconstruct the face of a 2,800-year-old Egyptian priestess by Eti Bonn-Muller (Archaeology, February 9, 2009)

CT images have helped two individuals–each working separately with 3-D STL (stereolithography) images of Meresamun’s skull produced from the scans, but using different techniques–reconstruct Meresamun’s face. Michael Brassell is a Baltimore-based forensic artist for…the National Missing and Unidentified Persons System…Josh Harker, a forensic artist who lives in Chicago and was originally trained as a sculptor, worked digitally, leveraging the latest software and imaging technology.

• King Tut’s new face:  behind the forensic reconstruction by Brian Handwerk (National Geographic News, May 11, 2005)

The world’s most famous pharaoh has a brand-new look, thanks to forensic techniques that wouldn’t be out of place on a CSI TV crime drama. Scientists have created the first ever bust of the ancient Egyptian King Tutankhamun based on 3-D CT scans of his 3,300-year-old mummy.

• The Denver “Rich Mummy” Reconstruction Project: A novel use of “digital sculpting” techniques and 3D printing by A. M. Christensen, S. M. Humphries, T. L. Vermilye (Medical Modeling, March 9, 2005)

Several years ago the Denver Museum of Nature and Science (DMNS) and University of Colorado Health Sciences Center (UCHSC) cooperated in a unique effort to study an intact 3,000 year old Egyptian mummy using medical imaging techniques. High resolution computed tomography (CT) scans were acquired through the entire length of the mummy enabling a detailed and non-invasive view inside the wrappings. The CT images effectively create a three-dimensional digital database of the anatomy and structure of the specimen which provided a basis for computer renderings that are currently on display at the DMNS.

• Facial reconstruction of a wrapped Egyptian mummy using MDCT by Federico Cesarani, Maria Cristina Martina, Renato Grilletto, Rosa Boano, Anna Maria Donadoni Roveri, Valter Capussotto, Andrea Giuliano, Maurizio Celia, Giovanni Gandini (American Journal of Roentgenology, September 2004)

Facial reconstruction of mummies and corpses in general is important in anthropological, medical, and forensic studies. The purpose of our study was to evaluate the role of MDCT examination for 3D facial reconstruction and report the results of multidisciplinary work performed by radiologists, anthropologists, and forensic police in reconstructing the possible physiognomy of an ancient Egyptian mummy.

For more general discussion of mummy forensics, the following sites and articles come highly recommended.

• The Scientific Study of the Egyptian Mummies by Dr. Antonio Brancaglion (Estudos Em Egiptologia, March 3, 2011)

The study of mummified human bodies gives us an insight to the Ancient Egypt way of life, to their lifestyle, health and funerary practices. This reduces the bias caused by the tentative interpretation of their artistic or written testimonies. The Egyptian word for mummy was sah, that means “eternal image” or “noble image”.

• Under Wraps: Rosalie David in Conversation by staff (Archaeology, February 6, 2001)

For nearly three decades, Rosalie David has directed the mummy research project at the Manchester Museum at Britain’s Manchester University, home of one of Europe’s finest Egyptian antiquities collections and one of the oldest research institutions in Egyptology. ARCHAEOLOGY spoke to David about her work with the Manchester Mummy Research Project and her latest book Conversations With Mummies, published this past October by William Morrow.

• How to Study a Mummy:  A step-by-step guide by James M. Deem (Mummy Tombs)

In order to study a mummy, scientists perform a number of procedures, similar in some ways to those used by a medical examiner who conducts an autopsy.

Copyright by Keith Payne, 2011.  All rights reserved.

My good friend Marc Chartier of Pyramidales (and more recently of Égypte-actualités, but more on that endeavor later..) had a chance to sit down recently with Jean-Pierre and discuss these questions and more.  Thanks to Em Hotep’s partnership with Pyramidales, I am able to bring you the English language version of this interview.  Enjoy, and please feel free to join the conversation, as they say…

In January 2011, Pyramidales joined the international press at La Géode in Paris for the premier of Khufu Reborn, the second phase of Jean-Pierre Houdin’s work with the Great Pyramid originally introduced to the world in 2007 with Khufu Revealed.  Thanks to the Passion for Innovation program, Jean-Pierre has enjoyed full access to the technology and talent of Dassault Systèmes, the world leader in industrial 3D CAD and simulation, to integrate and test his theories in a virtual environment based on the most thorough surveys of the pyramid and the Giza Plateau to date (you may enter and explore the simulation yourself online here).

Subsequently, Pyramidales fully described and illustrated these new developments regarding the construction and the technical configuration of the Great Pyramid of Giza (see the Pyramidales Interviews in the right sidebar).  Now, as we come up on the one year anniversary of Khufu Reborn, Pyramidales again joined Jean-Pierre for a discussion of how the work is progressing, in particular, how the new material covered in “Phase II” has been received and interpreted by expert and amateur enthusiasts of Egyptology and the public in general.

It is with warm gratitude to Jean-Pierre that Pyramidales brings this interview to you.

Pyramidales:

Jean-Pierre Houdin, it has been nearly a year now since you premiered, at an international press conference, the continuation of the work you first presented in Khufu Revealed back in 2007 explaining your research and work regarding the manner of construction of the Great Pyramid of Giza.

Looking back, how do you assess the reactions generated both among the general public and from specialists and experts in the field of Egyptology by these extensions to your original theory?

Jean-Pierre Houdin:

The presentation of Khufu Reborn, on January 27^th, 2011, at la Géode, was already for me the expression of a major vote of confidence from my friends on the “Khufu Team” at Dassault Systèmes.  For reasons that have nothing to do with science, no scientific research has been carried out on-site since the revelation, on March 30th, 2007, of the theory of the internal ramp; the result is the inability to get scientific proof of the existence of an internal ramp.  Otherwise, the discovery by Dr. Bob Brier, while filming a documentary in 2008, of a large unknown room behind the notch on the north-eastern edge was a clue of great importance.

Given this context, the decision made four years later by the “Khufu Team” to help me, by means of an extraordinary 3D animation, to go even further in my revelations with the announcement of the possible existence of two antechambers next to the King’s Chamber, was for me a major event for the theory. After nearly eight years of silence on this aspect of my work, I can now demonstrate the consistency of this research.  No previous researcher has delved as thoroughly into the study of Khufu’s pyramid as we have, both with regard to the architectural project drawn up by the designers of the time as well as the implementation of the project.

In addition to the satisfaction they bring, public reactions are quite telling: one can observe in my proposals the gradual development of my theory and how each progression of the work consistently builds a more complete picture, based on simplicity and logic, which fully answers the questions that are related to the construction and purpose of the Great Pyramid.  The public is finally able to see the genius of the ancient Egyptians by understanding how an “inexplicable” mystery—how the Great Pyramid was built—involved neither magic nor miracles, just tried and true construction methods.  The theory explains how simple human intervention addressed seemingly impossible tasks.  Now, about the construction specialists, there again the response has been very positive.  The 3D presentation spoke their language very convincingly.

Finally, let’s talk about experts in Egyptology … the French ones!  They have not deigned to usefully express themselves since the initial presentation of the theory, so why should it be different now, particularly if the generally positive reception the work has gotten elsewhere reflects them in an unflattering light?  In contrast, many foreign Egyptologists have shown a growing interest in my work.

Unfortunately, as always, traditional Egyptological explanations about the pyramid of Khufu are based on a trompe-l’oeil: a north-south cross-section showing three rooms, some corridors and the Grand Gallery.  Looking at the inner works of the pyramid from just this perspective has resulted in theories that simply do not hold up under careful analysis.  These theories collapse when examined in light of how the different internal parts are laid out and relate to each other, how the funerary rites and processions would have been conducted, and especially in terms of building principles.  Yet the construction of the pyramids during the Fourth Dynasty, with Snefru, Khufu and Khafre, was the result of practical know-how, of course constantly improved, but in the service of architectural continuity.

An example of this sort of misinterpretation is the so-called “rupture” of Khufu, based on the famous north-south cross-section view.  This is not a rupture at all.  This erroneous conclusion is based on an Egyptological interpretation of the monument, not from an architectural interpretation.  But the pyramid was designed by architects, and it takes the perspective of a fellow builder to bring together all the elements in a way that allows us to understanding the intentions of the designers.  The stones speak to those who can understand their language … an architect, for example.

Pyramidales:

It seems to me, after a very thorough survey of the literature both in print and on-line that that your name remains primarily associated with the first phase of your work, in particular, with the internal ramp aspect of your theory.  In other words, Khufu Revealed is more well-known while Khufu Reborn seems to remain confined to more confidential spheres.  Do you feel that the second phase of your work, especially as it relates to the two antechambers next to the King’s Chamber, is encountering some difficulty in gaining traction?

Jean-Pierre Houdin:

This apparent state of affairs is absolutely not related to the “quality” of the information revealed on January 27 (the probable presence of two antechambers close to the King’s Chamber), but to the “quantity” of information that has spread on the web after the press conference.  When Khufu Revealed premiered on March 30, 2007, there was an extraordinary “cocktail” between quality and quantity of news, the theory being propelled, thanks to a very innovative presentation in 3D animation and in real time, to the top of the news cycle for more than 24 hours.  The news went around the world with the time zones.  This type of “state of grace” is exceptional and it clearly set the bar very high for any new statement on the subject.

The purpose of the press conference on January 27, 2011, was quite different: push the theory a little deeper into the minds of people, by revealing the elements (the two antechambers) that could have blurred the message if they had been included in the 2007 presentation.  The conference itself was a great success, major French television channels (TF1, FR2, and FR3 in particular) talking extensively about the event in their mid-day and evening news.  As for news agencies and newspapers, they have widely spread the information on their side, except for a large agency that has managed to “conveniently” miss the subject, resulting in fewer articles than we enjoyed in 2007.

But I believe that above all, there was a major event nobody could have anticipated or planned for, and which partly stole the show to “Khufu Reborn”: on January 25, 2011, the first news about an embryonic revolutionary movement was arriving from Cairo… on January 27, the day of the conference, the revolution in Tahrir Square was already on the front page in all media.  You know what happened next.

Also, when you search the theory on Google, there are more responses related to 2007 than to 2011. This is only linked to the quantity of information available, not to the quality.  But I can tell you, and the “Khufu Team” certainly agrees with me, that the message is very well perceived.  Every day I receive, from everywhere around the world, many e-mail from passionate people who know a lot about pyramids and who are totally convinced by the overall consistency of the theory.

A visit to the official Khufu Reborn website made by Dassault Systèmes enables visitors to put their “feet on the site” and explore both the theory and the pyramid and its environment in a way that has never been possible before.  People can visit the website and see how the entire theory fits together and when they emerge from this journey their emails to me show that they are “getting it” and their understanding of this work leaves little room for doubting the veracity of the theory.

Finally, I conclude on this issue by taking your sentence: “In other words, Khufu Revealed is more well-known while Khufu Reborn seems to remain confined to more confidential spheres

For me, on the front line, I perceive absolutely no confinement.  Khufu Reborn perfectly complements Khufu Revealed and anyone who is interested in my work ends up having knowledge of the theory as a whole.  The goal is reached.  As for the “confidential spheres”, I would say that these terms are more applicable to a very small number of people in the world of Egyptology who have chosen to ignore me. Too bad for them, the dialogue would have been interesting.

Pyramidales:

During your public presentation of Khufu Reborn last January, contacts were established with two experts from Laval University in Quebec, for a possible in-situ observation of the Great Pyramid, using the technique of Multipolar Infrared Vision.  Can you share the current status of this project?

And a necessary complement to this question: such a project presupposes an implied agreement at the highest levels of Egyptian Antiquities.  Now Egypt has experienced the upheavals that we have all witnessed.  Will the appointment of a new Secretary General of the Supreme Council of Antiquities, and a minister of Egyptian Antiquities, possibly open a window to the completion of your project?

Jean-Pierre Houdin:

The collaboration with a team from Laval University, consisting of Professor Xavier Maldague, Matthew Klein and Clemente Ibarra Castanedo, is developing very well.  Working meetings were held in June at the university and we have established a specific protocol, with a strategy for the establishment of a mission.  In addition, a Multipolar Infrared Vision campaign was set up in Quebec: the experience is being applied to the “Redoute”, a fortified building in the walls of Old Quebec, with local authorities being warmly receptive to the project and amenable to making the building available.  We will therefore be able to refine the protocol based on the results acquired during this local project.

This leads me to answer the second part of your question: as always, it is essential that any survey to be carried out on-site is conducted with the cooperation of our Egyptian counterparts and in accordance with the legal authorities of the Supreme Council of Antiquities (SCA). The current situation in Egypt does not leave a clear vision of what is going on with the SCA, the post of Secretary-General being successively held by several people in a very short time.  The current elections are an additional element of uncertainty about the future of this service.  It follows that it is unfortunately impossible to see at the moment a “window” to complete the project.

Pyramidales:

Does your theory as formulated in Khufu Reborn represent the culmination of your “reconstitution of the building site” of the Great Pyramid?  Or is it likely to have new developments or improvements?  If so, what are the new areas of your research?

Jean-Pierre Houdin:

The theory is now globally formulated, funerary architecture is determined, construction processes are detailed and the entire Giza Plateau is integrated into the explanation of the project and its progression. But as in any hypothesis, the details can still be improved.  However, they will render the theory even more relevant.  I am very pleased because the theory became more refined and simplified while its developments and its logic were enhanced.  Every step, every detail, every process, every architectural choice are supported by solid arguments or evidence visible in situ.

Countless 3D simulations conducted with the CATIA software provided by Dassault Systèmes allowed the team to construct a perfect virtual model of the pyramid and its place on the Giza Plateau, and within this environment we were able to simulate and test any concept or potentiality, and it is through this process that the refined theory has emerged.  Now, only confrontation with the reality will allow us to correct any differences in detail.

Doubt is part of the research, of course, but it is more and more difficult for me to imagine any other way apart from the technique of “building from the inside” for the construction of the Great Pyramid.  When I try to put myself “at the outside” in order to address the issue, and because of all the knowledge I gained during twelve years of research, I always understand quickly that I stumble against an impossibility.  I had the time to turn the problem in every way, believe me!

As I often say, Khufu’s pyramid has not arrived on the Giza Plateau by chance: it is the result of an evolution in the art of building from the early mastabas.  Having studied all the pyramids built from Djoser up to Menkaure, it is now appropriate that I specify for each one their specific mode of construction, especially the two pyramids of Snefru at Dahshur (the Bent and the Red Pyramids) and Khafre’s pyramid in Giza.  If construction “from the inside” is the rule, there will still be variations adapted to each of the monuments in the building processes.  The modeling of these pyramids will demonstrate these changes and can only complement and strengthen the principles of the theory.

Pyramidales:

Henri Houdin, Jean-Pierre's father, attentive to his son's research

Khufu’s pyramid is considered the ultimate pyramid architecture on the Giza plateau, the culmination of the skills of the Egyptian builders.  Does this mean that this pyramid is unique?  Or do you think that the techniques used in its construction – in particular, from your point of view, the internal ramp – have also been used to build other pyramids, Khafre, for example, or Menkaure as well?

Jean-Pierre Houdin:

As I indicated in my previous answer, Khufu’s pyramid is, at the beginning of its construction, the culmination of the expertise of Egyptian builders and is absolutely not a unique monument, although this pyramid is unique in its category (funerary architecture in the heart of the monument).  The construction technique of “building from the inside” was applied to all large smooth pyramids built after the Step Pyramid of Saqqara.  This does not mean that all smooth pyramids were built in part by an internal ramp.  This technical process was only necessary for the large smooth pyramids of the Fourth Dynasty (Bent, Red, Khufu and Khafre … and certainly Meidum).  For all other pyramids from Menkaure and after, Egyptians will continue to build “from the inside”, but without recourse to an internal ramp; a construction trench penetrating in one side of the building will be reserved during construction before being recapped at the end of construction.  There are traces of trenches in the ruins of the pyramids of Neferirkare and Sahure at Abusir.

Pyramidales:

A fundamental question to me: regarding the multiple contemporary theories which succeed each other in an attempt to decipher – at last! – The “secret of the pyramids”, what are, in your opinion, the strengths, or even more, the skills, that any researcher must or should show in this field?

Jean-Pierre Houdin:

I believe it is important to think first to the monument itself, to understand the design philosophy, to follow the logic of the scalable architecture of the time, to analyze in detail the components, and especially to not come proposing a gadget that could respond to a specific point of construction.  The Great Pyramid of Khufu was built using processes that were simple, logical, and controlled, they just did so on a larger scale than before.

The schedule of conditions was clear: build a pyramid, just a pyramid, and not, for example, build a big ramp “at lost” or build locks to build a pyramid.  Resources in Egypt were precious, and one had to build without wasting any material or effort.  Extracting a stone to build an external ramp was not an end but a step in the life of this stone.  Processes tailored to each major stage of construction lowered the cost of construction, because the same stone used in one phase (the external ramp) was recycled in the next phase, becoming a component of the building itself. This is the great art of the Egyptians of the time.

What are the necessary skills?  Certainly a good knowledge about construction, that makes sense to me … especially when I see some theories that ignore gravity!

I do not think that we can learn much just from the study of ancient texts, especially when these texts are so few and sketchy.  Herodotus is absolutely not sufficient, far from it!

To the contrary, we have to draw upon the totality of knowledge this period has left to us, a surprisingly vast reference library.  One can find common parameters, an architectural language and religious principles, and understanding these elements is mandatory to solving these puzzles.  By understanding how these principles have been applied elsewhere we can extrapolate how they may have served in the building of Khufu’s Pyramid.

Pyramidales:

You have lent your voice to encouraging and promoting the Earth Pyramid project developed by Steve Ward.  Why do you think this initiative is promising?  What does it reveal?

Jean-Pierre Houdin:

I have been in touch with Steve Ward for more than a year.  Steve found my theory simple, logical, ecological and perfectly suited to his project to build a modern pyramid today.  So there was already a likeable side in this encounter via the Internet.  But what attracted me the most was the idea of the Earth Pyramid Project: to build a monument intended to cross the centuries for future generations, involving the younger generations of today in a large rallying movement.

Why is this initiative promising?

We never get something for nothing.  The men and women who will support this initiative are themselves those who will make the initiative promising.  But the Earth Pyramid project has a lot going for it that makes me hopeful:  the project is positive, constructive, generous, peaceful, somewhat utopian (we will always need dreamers), dedicated to children around the world who have a sacred need to have another vision of Earth than the one they see all day long in the TV: wars, crises, disasters, famines … there is nothing very positive in all this.

So when someone is deeply motivated, fights for a noble and smart idea (transmitting messages from children intended to be read in a thousand years), I support it, it’s as simple as that.  It’s a bit of fresh air in a quite turbulent world.  And the symbol of the pyramid containing a “time-capsule” is a great idea.  It is clear that this type of monument can defy time without too much trouble … These are just the actions of men that can disrupt their life: who would dare attack a symbol dedicated to children from around the world?

In this installment:  The search for Nefertiti, mummies and heart disease, was Tut murdered, mummies and dental care, ancient brain surgery, tracking Lady Tahat and sexing Lady Hor..  Much more..

The Search for Nefertiti

Nefertiti has been the subject of controversy ever since the New Kingdom Period, and as befits an arch-diva, she remains the source of heated contention today.  Did she reign for a season as the shadowy Pharaoh Smenkhkare following Akhenaten’s death?  Should her famous bust be returned to Egypt?  Ask these questions in the right crowd and prepare for fisticuffs!  Well, maybe it isn’t that bad, but one subject that did draw some heat for a while was whether or not the anonymous mummy known only as KV35YL—the Younger Lady—could be the remains of Nefertiti.

Tomb KV35—the tomb of Amenhotep II—was discovered in 1898.  The Eighteenth Dynasty tomb had been used in later years as a repository for royal mummies that had been relocated due to the looting of their own tombs.  Along with an impressive list of fellow Eighteenth Dynasty royals, tucked away in a side chamber were two unidentified female mummies, dubbed the Elder Lady (KV35EL) and Younger Lady (KV35YL).  Rumors almost immediately began circulating that one of the two must be Nefertiti.

KV35YL - the "Younger Lady"

The most popular claims were based on unaided forensic observations (just using your eyes and expertise).  Her head still bears the impression of a headband, which is consistent with the style of headdress worn by Nefertiti and other Eighteenth Dynasty royal women.  Her double-pierced ears are likewise a sign of royalty.  Even more intriguing is a broken-off arm nearby, attributed to KV35YL, which was preserved in a clutching position, as if she held a scepter of office when embalmed.

All of these observations, despite being circumstantial, are valid methods in mummy forensics.  It would certainly seem that the tragically damaged mummy of KV35 Younger Lady was a royal princess, possibly a King’s Great Wife, but can we say she was Nefertiti?  Follow the story and see where more advanced mummy forensics takes us. 

Searching for Nefertiti—Mummies in KV35 are CT scanned to see if one is Nefertiti (no date).

Tracking Nefertiti by Maryalice Yekutchik (Discovery Channel)

Having recently accumulated firsthand scientific data to add to the corroborative evidence that she painstakingly mounted over the years, Joann Fletcher has broken her cryptic silence. She declares that the unwrapped, shaven-headed mummy in KV35 is indeed most likely to be Nefertiti, the stunningly beautiful and powerful 3,400-year-old royal who likely reigned as pharaoh after serving as queen, and whose death and final resting place were ages-old mysteries.

Where’s Nefertiti?  By Mark Rose (Archaeology, September 16, 2004)

Mark Rose critiques Joann Fletcher’s work, and resultant book, regarding her search for Nefertiti and conclusion that she is one of the mummies from KV35.

Nefertiti—Will the Real Mummy Please Stand Up? By James M. Deem (Mummy Tombs)

Could the missing mummy of Nefertiti actually have been discovered a century ago and simply misidentified? A team of British researchers led by Egyptologist Joanne Fletcher conducted a 12-year search for the mummy. In 2003, they claimed that they had identified the missing Queen’s mummy as one discovered in a cache of mummies uncovered in 1898. Case closed? Not quite.

Press Release:  CT Scans of Egyptian Mummies from the Valley of the Kings

One of the most intriguing mummies from the Valley of Kings is the “Younger Lady” from KV35. She has recently, and unconvincingly, been identified as Akhenaten’s chief queen Nefertiti, renowned as one of the great beauties of the ancient world. Traditional scholarship has already successfully debunked this speculative assumption; the latest CT-scan confirms that this identification is indeed highly unlikely.

Mummies and Heart Disease—Evidence of a “Modern” Affliction

Did the ancient Egyptians suffer from hardening of the arteries?  Mummy forensics says the prognosis is critical—heart disease was fairly common, at least among royalty.  But this result came as a surprise to cardiologists, and led to a reexamination of their assumptions about what causes this not-so-modern killer.

Dr. Greg Thomas, Clinical Professor of Cardiology at the University of California, Irvine, started with a problematic observation about what we thought we knew about heart disease.  Conventional wisdom said that heart disease was a modern affliction caused by a lifestyle of bad habits, a high-fat diet, and a sedentary lifestyle.  And yet, in his own practice Dr. Thomas knew of people who led healthy lifestyles and yet developed heart disease nonetheless. 

Dr. Thomas wondered if another variable was causing the problem, unrelated to lifestyle.   He decided that one way to find out was to study a group of subjects who didn’t smoke, avoided fast food, and lived active lifestyles, or at least they did thousands of years ago—ancient Egyptian mummies.  Dr. Thomas’ patients who developed heart disease despite healthy habits suggested that lifestyle was not the only, or even a necessary, cause of heart disease.  If ancient Egyptians, who had none of our modern risk factors, also suffered from heart disease, then this would be further evidence that something besides the modern lifestyle was at work.

The Horus Study Group was thus formed to seek answers to these questions.  An international team of heart specialists and Egyptologists, the Horus Study Group’s goal was to conduct CT scans on 20 royal mummies from the Egyptian Museum at Cairo, looking for signs of heart disease.  The cardiologists were skeptical.  They did not expect to find evidence of arteriosclerosis, the hardening of the arteries associated with modern heart disease. 

At first, the CT scans seemed to confirm their suspicions.  Initial analysis of the results failed to turn up the tell-tale calcium deposits that indicate arteriosclerosis.  But as they had more time to delve into the results, the Horus Group researchers began to see patterns emerge that were missed on the first sweep.  Not only did many of the mummies have atherosclerosis (hardening of the arteries exacerbated by plaque buildup), in some instances the condition was advanced. 

In this study, mummy forensics taught us something about a condition that we considered a modern affliction.  We found that not only is heart disease as old as civilization itself, we learned that while lifestyle might contribute to, or even cause heart disease, something else (such as genetics) is involved. 

Of course, the mummies in this study group came from a privileged class, where lifestyle factors such as a high-fat diet and a less physically active regimen, cannot be ruled out as contributing factors.  While the Horus Study opened new ways of looking at what turns out to be an old disease, further work is required for a more solid conclusion.

Egyptian Mummies Unwrap Secrets of Medical Mystery—The Horus Study Group is an international team of Cardiologists and Egyptologists who are determined to learn more about modern medicine by unwrapping secrets found in Egyptian mummies.  This clip is an introduction to their work.  (March 30, 2011).

Click here to view the embedded video.

Heart Disease Found in Egyptian Mummies—It turns out heart disease has been a problem for thousands of years. Recently researchers took a closer look at a 3,500-year-old mummy and found out this Egyptian princess along with more than a dozen other mummies suffered from a buildup of plaque in the arteries (April 11, 2009).

Click here to view the embedded video.

Heart Disease Found in Egyptian Mummies by staff (Science Daily, November 17, 2009)

Hardening of the arteries has been detected in Egyptian mummies, some as old as 3,500 years, suggesting that the factors causing heart attack and stroke are not only modern ones; they afflicted ancient people, too.

Mummy Scans Show Heart Disease was Rampant by Laura Sanders (Wired/Science News, November 18, 2009)

Among 22 mummies who received full-body computed tomography scans, 16 had hearts or arteries preserved enough to study. Of those, nine had evidence of blockage from atherosclerosis.

The Mummy Study Returns by Tom Vasich (University of California, Irvine/University Communications, April, 2011)

While the American and Egyptian researchers first identified atherosclerosis in a smaller 2009 mummy study, this effort involved whole-body CT scans on 52 mummies housed in Cairo’s Museum of Egyptian Antiquities. Of the 44 with identifiable arteries or hearts, 45 percent had calcifications either in the wall of an artery or along the course of an artery highly suggestive of atherosclerosis.

Egyptian Mummy’s Curse:  Oldest Heart Disease Case by Stephanie Pappas (Live Science, May 17, 2011)

An ancient Egyptian princess would have needed bypass surgery if she’d lived today, according to researchers who examined the mummy and found blocked arteries in her heart in what’s now the oldest case of human heart disease.

Egyptian Princess Mummy Had Oldest Known Heart Disease by James Owen (National Geographic News, April 15, 2011)

An ancient Egyptian princess might have been able to postpone her mummification if she had cut the calories and exercised more, medical experts say.  Known as Ahmose Meryet Amon, the princess lived some 3,500 years ago and died in her 40s.

Egyptian Princess Needed Bypass Surgery, Mummy Study Shows by staff (History in the Headlines/History Channel, May 18, 2011)

The daughter of Pharaoh Seqenenre Tao II and the brother of Pharaoh Kamose, the Egyptian princess Ahmose-Meryet-Amun lived in Thebes—now Luxor—between 1540 and 1550 B.C. When she died in her 40s, the royal mummy-to-be may have been suffering from heart disease so severe that today’s doctors would have performed bypass surgery. Her mummy was examined during a larger study that shed new light on the history of the heart condition known as atherosclerosis, suggesting that the disease may have been around much longer than previously thought.

Was King Tut Murdered?

Poor Tut inherited a mess.  His father, Akhenaten, had turned Egyptian political and religious life on its head, establishing the reclusive and elitist New World Order at Amarna.  Now, with the collapse of the Amarna court and the rush to restore the old government and religious institutions, Tut seems to have been wedged into a power vacuum as little more than a placeholder. 

Tutankhamun was surrounded by envious enemies and potential plotters from the outset.  Indeed, his two closest confidants, Ay and Horemheb, were each waiting for their own turn on the throne.  To the aging vizier Ay, the nine-year-old king was a serious long-term cramp in his personal ambitions.  Horemheb, commander of Egypt’s armies and Tut’s official heir, would have likewise seen the young king as an unpredictable variable susceptible to Ay’s manipulations at court while the general was away fighting battles.

And then there were the grudges.  Tutankhamun’s father had stripped the Amun priesthood of all power and authority.  Of course, Akhenaten had inflicted this humiliation on all of Egypt’s established religions, but the Eighteenth Dynasty had a special relationship with Amun, who was seen as their deliverer from the Hyksos.  The New Kingdom arguably owed its establishment to the covenant between Ahmose I, Amun, and the institution of the religion of Amun.  Tutankhamun’s father had spat upon that arrangement. 

Of course, Tutankhamun was the public face of the reversal of Akhenaten’s policies, but for some people this may have been too little too late.  Some high-ranking government officials, powerful clergy, and wealthy nobles had lost virtually everything in the restructuring of Egyptian society based at Amarna.  Many people just a few years older than Tut had seen their families disenfranchised and their inheritances swept away, and it is not difficult to envision machinations of revenge.

So what is the evidence for regicide?  Are there alternative explanations?  If King Tut wasn’t murdered, why did he die so young?  In the case of Tutankhamun’s death, mummy forensics led to suspicion when a potentially lethal wound was discovered at the back of his head, and then eventually led to an explanation for this and other wounds, and a deeper understanding of the process of royal mummification during the New Kingdom Period.  As for what did kill him, do your own analysis of the following sources and reach your own conclusion.  There are still several to choose from!

Mummy Forensics:  Was Tutankhamun Murdered?—Mummy forensics turned up a possible cause of death for Tutankhamun, one which may have been purposely inflicted.  But on reexamination, the process of mummification itself may explain the hole in Tut’s head.

Who Killed King Tut?  (King Tut Website)

A review of the theories and possible suspects regarding Tutankhamun’s death.

Was Tutankhamun Murdered?  By Jenny Hill (Ancient Egypt Online)

Unfortunately, Howard Carter and his team were not particularly careful with the body of Tutankhamun when they investigated his tomb. They were more interested in removing the jewellery and amulets that were placed within the mummy wrappings than in preserving his body for posterity and in their haste they caused a huge amount of damage. Since then Tutankhamun’s mummy has been X-rayed three times (in 1968, 1978 and in 2005) but these scans have been unable to confirm beyond a reasonable doubt, the cause of his death.

Was Tutankhamun Murdered?  By Kate Ravilious (The Guardian, November 18, 2004)

The scan provides information about the density of all parts of the mummy, ranging from the wrappings to the skin and bone. “The scan will give a clear view of any bones that are not in the correct position and any signs of injury,” says John Taylor, an Egyptologist at the British Museum, who has carried out CAT scans on about 20 mummies.

King Tut Not Murdered Violently, CT Scans Show by Brian Handwerk (National Geographic News, March 8, 2005)

Detailed CT scans of King Tutankhamun’s mummy found no physical evidence of murder, Egypt’s Supreme Council of Antiquities announced today. But the scans did reveal unusual features, including a broken leg, which some experts think may have led to the boy king’s death.

King Tut Felled by Malaria, Bone Disease by Rosella Lorenzi (Discovery News, February 16, 2010)

King Tutankhamun was most likely the child of the “heretic” pharaoh Akhenaten..and was afflicted by several diseases, including malaria, according to a major genetic investigation into the boy king’s family.  “We have found so many curious conditions and pathologies in King Tut that it is really a problem to define what killed him,” author Carsten Pusch at the Institute of Human Genetics of Tubingen University, Germany, told Discovery News.

King Tut Died From Broken Leg, Not Murder, Scientists Say by Stefan Lovgren (National Geographic News, December 1, 2006)

A CT scan of King Tutankhamun’s mummy has disproved a popular theory that the Egyptian pharaoh was murdered by a blow to the head more than 3,300 years ago. Instead the most likely explanation for the boy king’s death at 19 is a thigh fracture that became infected and ultimately fatal, according to an international team of scientists.

A 3,000-Year-Old Mystery is finally solved:  Tutankhamun Died in a Hunting Accident by Steve Connor (The Independent, October 22, 2007)

The mystery behind the sudden death of Tutankhamun, the boy king who ruled Egypt more than 3,000 years ago, may have been finally solved by scientists who believe that he fell from a fast-moving chariot while out hunting in the desert.

Tut:  Disease and DNA News by Mark Rose (Archaeology, February 16, 2010)

News reports are coming out today about Tut, malaria, and his family DNA. Here’s a quick take based on an early cut of the Discovery documentary and the Journal of the American Medical Association press release.

Lady Tahat—Musical Mummies or a Matched Wrap?

The Carlos Museum at Emory University has received a female mummy in a coffin that identifies her as Tanakhtnettahat (Lady Tahat for short), a Chantress of Amun.  But sometimes less reputable antiquities dealers stick unidentified mummies into empty coffins to increase their value.  How can we be sure the mummy is really that of Lady Tahat?

Mummy forensics draws on specialists from a wide range of disciplines.  Can a textiles specialist match the mummy to the coffin?

How Mummy Identification Works—Narrated by Bob Brier, this clip from the Discovery Channel describes how specialists sought to verify the identity of a mummy by matching it to its coffin.  The coffin belonged to Lady Tahat (Tanakhtnettahat), a Chantress of Amun, but does its current occupant belong there?  A scrap of wrappings, presumably from the original owner, is stuck to the bottom of the coffin.  Does it match the wrappings of the mummy currently within? (No date).

Coffin and Coffin Board of Tanakhtnettahat (Carlos Museum/Emory University)

This exquisite coffin belonged to the Lady Tahat, a chantress in the temple of the god Amun at Karnak. Such women were usually of high rank, as this unusually fine coffin indicates.

The Gender-Bending Case of “Lady” Hor

On June 23, 2009, a team from the Brooklyn Museum transported four mummies to North Shore University Hospital for CT scans.  Two of the mummies were from the Roman Period, including Pasebakhaemipet, a former mayor of Thebes, and two were female mummies from the Twenty-Second Dynasty, named Lady Hor and Thothirdes.  Or so the researchers thought.

The researchers were looking for the typical sorts of things CT scans tell us about mummies—verification of sex, diagnoses of any potential health issues, and a determination of the cause of death, if possible.  The study also sought to compare how the process of mummification differed from period to period and between different social classes.

Both Lady Hor and Thothirdes showed signs of receiving lower-quality mummifications than the Roman-era mummies, evidenced in part by the fact that both women were missing their hearts.  The heart is left intact with higher-quality mummifications.  But the researchers were even more surprised by what was not missing!  Both Lady Hor and Thothirdes were men, not women!

Taking the example of “Lady” Hor, this study shows the advantages of being able to look “under the wrappings” with x-rays and CT scans.  Hor, which incidentally is a masculine name—a pretty good clue!—was originally assumed to be female based on the portrait on his sarcophagus, which depicted a beardless face with delicate features.  Most Egyptian men from this period wore beards, so the researchers who made the original determination assumed that Hor was female.  It was only after looking under the wrappings with CT scanning that the truth was discovered.

Under the Wrappings:  The “Lady” Hor—Video from the Brooklyn Museum describing the CT scan that revealed Lady Hor to be Sir Hor instead.  We learn about the difficulties of transporting the mummies from the Brooklyn Museum to North Shore University Hospital, along with an explanation by Dr. Edward Bleiberg  of the misdiagnosis and subsequent proper diagnosis of Hor’s sex (April 1, 2010).

Click here to view the embedded video.

Scan Reveals Mummy is Male—An Associated Press clip on the CT scan and diagnosis of Hor.  Commentary with Dr. Edward Bleiberg of the Brooklyn Museum and Dr. Jesse Chusid of North Shore University Hospital in this gender-bending discovery made possible by CT scan (June 24, 2009).

Click here to view the embedded video.

Unwrapping Brooklyn’s Mummies: Interview with Edward Bleiberg (Archaeology, July 23, 2009)

Dr. Edward Bleiberg discusses the Brooklyn Museum’s fascinating mummies and their CT scans with Archaeology‘s Morgan Moroney. He describes what has been learned so far and the future plans for the scans, while emphasizing the importance of non-intrusive mummy unwrappings, the open exchange of scholars, excavating in museum storerooms, and public outreach.  Dr. Bleiberg also discusses the study that revealed Hor’s gender.

Report on the Mummies’ Trip to the Hospital by Vincent Brown (Talking Pyramids, June 24, 2009)

Vincent Brown’s live coverage via social media of the Brooklyn Museum mummies’ trip to the CT scanner at North Shore University Hospital.

Hey, That Mummy is a Daddy by Erik Badia (Newsday, June 23, 2009)

Egyptologists from the Brooklyn Museum and doctors from North Shore University Hospital learned Tuesday through a CT scan that a 2,500-year-old mummy previously thought to be a woman – and named Lady Hor – actually was a man. Dr. Jesse Chusid said that while the mummy’s body wrap of linen covered in plaster, called cartonage, bore the shape of a woman, the body within had the anatomy of a man. When Lady Hor’s image appeared on the screen, “we knew almost immediately that it was not a woman,” Chusid said.

Mery—Four out of Five Mummies Agree:  Brush Your Teeth

Mery (“beloved”) is the name given to an anonymous female mummy acquired by the Walters Art Museum of Baltimore in 1941.  Although her real name is unknown, we know that she lived in Thebes around 850-750 BC, came from a middle class professional family, and lived to between 50-60 years of age.  We also know that her final years would have been miserable.

Mery’s teeth were in terrible condition at the time of her death.  Of 28 remaining teeth, half were abscessed and her gums show signs of infection.  Her problem wasn’t cavities—her teeth were too worn and broken for many cavities to form.  At any given time, several of Mery’s teeth would have been throbbing with pain.  Her abscesses were so severe that her cause of death was likely septicemia, blood poisoning from her infected teeth and gums.  But her condition was not so unusual. 

At least after death, teeth are the most durable part of the human body, surviving even better than bones.  Orthodontic studies of mummies can tell us about their diet and lifestyle, and blood preserved in the pulp can provide DNA, so a good dental checkup is one of the first steps in a forensic mummy study.  But the most comprehensive study of mummy teeth came in 2009, when the Swiss Mummy Project did a massive forensic study of the dental records of over 3,000 mummies that had been analyzed over the previous 30 years. 

X-ray of Hatshepsut's teeth show Mery was not alone in her misery

The Swiss study concluded that 18% of the mummies had problems that would send even the most squeamish of us running to the dentist.  Necrotizing periodontal disease, infected cysts leaking toxins into the bloodstream, tooth and bone degeneration leaving nerves exposed, constant dull ache punctuated by moments of intense explosive pain…  Mery and the unlucky 18% experienced this and more.  But the ancient Egyptians had a diet fairly low in sugar, so why were bad teeth so prevalent?

The main culprit was the sand that surrounded them, which found its way into everything, including their food.  Bread was a staple of the ancient Egyptian diet, and bread required stone-milled flour.  When grain was tossed on the grinding stone there would inevitably be a small amount of sand that would also be pulverized into the flour.  Over the course of a lifetime this fine silicon abrasive slowly wore away at the teeth’s enamel and dentin.

Mummy forensics has also revealed signs of ancient Egyptian dentistry.  For the worst abscesses, hollow reeds would be used to lance and drain the gums.  Mery herself shows signs of an attempt to fill one of her teeth, probably with a resin mixture.  Unfortunately, Novocain was still a few millennia away.

The Walters Mummy Gets a Checkup—In spring 2008, the University of Maryland and the Walters Art Museum performed a CT scan on Mery, a female mummy from the museum, to conduct a “virtual autopsy” discovering more about the person’s age, possible illnesses and cause of death. She most likely died of blood poisoning from severe dental abscesses.

Click here to view the embedded video.

Mummified:  The Walters Art Museum Mummy Gets Scanned (Walters Art Museum)

The Walters Art Museum webpage concerning the “virtual autopsy” of Mery.

Bad Teeth Tormented Ancient Egyptians by Rosella Lorenzi (Discovery News, December 3, 2009)

Worn teeth, periodontal diseases, abscesses and cavities tormented the ancient Egyptians, according to the first systematic review of all studies performed on Egyptian mummies in the past 30 years.

Don’t Fear the Mummy?  Fear Her Dentist by Karl Hille (The Washington Examiner, November 27, 2008)

Judging by the state of Mery the mummy’s teeth, dental hygiene likely wasn’t a top priority 2,800 years ago, and it may even have been the cause of her demise.  Deep abscesses, broken teeth and intensely infected gums filled Mery’s mouth, leading researchers to believe she died from blood poisoning stemming from multiple infections.

Head Check No. 1: The Mystery of Tomb 10A

The head sat atop the sarcophagus as if to greet them—pleased to meet you, won’t you guess my name?

In 1915 a tomb was excavated by a joint Harvard University/Museum of Fine Arts Boston expedition working in the necropolis of Deir el-Bersha.  Labeled 10A, this was the tomb of Djehutynakht and his unnamed wife.  Djehutynakht was a local governor and priest from the Middle Kingdom Period, and his tomb goods, despite the shinier stuff having been looting ages ago, show that Djehutynakht and his wife enjoyed a life of refinement.  He left behind a huge cache of delicately executed funerary models, and his coffin may be one of the best examples from the Middle Kingdom Period.

The mystery revolves around a head found resting on Djehutynakht’s coffin.  Tomb robbers destroyed the mummies of Djehutynakht and his wife looking for the valuable amulets and jewelry that would have been included in their wrappings.  When the spoilers had finished, the remains of both mummies lay scattered about the tomb, with the head perched atop Djehutynakht’s coffin like a macabre signature to their deed.

So who does the head belong to?  Djehutynakht?  His wife?  Mummy forensics has its limits.

Can Modern Science Solve an Ancient Mystery?  The Secrets of Tomb 10A—Clip from the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.  Four thousand years ago, an Egyptian dignitary and his wife were interred in a tomb on top of a rugged cliff. When excavators from the MFA opened the tomb in 1915, tomb robbers had already ransacked it. Amid the disarray, a severed mummy’s head was found. Was it the governor (Djehutynakht) or his wife? What could it teach us about mummification practices?  Scientists at Massachusetts General Hospital studied the mummy’s head to find clues.

Click here to view the embedded video.

The Secrets of Tomb 10A:  The Mummy (Museum of Fine Arts, Boston)

Scientists from Massachusetts General Hospital examined the head using medical imaging techniques. This revealed dramatic new information about Egyptian mummification practices; for example, this mummy is one of the earliest to show evidence that embalmers removed the brain through the nose, a process that later became common.

Exhibition at Museum of Fine Arts, Boston to Unlock the Secrets of Tomb 10A: Egypt 2000 BC by staff (Artdaily.org, September 3, 2009)

This find represents the largest Middle Kingdom burial assemblage ever discovered and sheds light on the grand lifestyle enjoyed by local governor and priest Djehutynakht and his wife, Lady Djehutynakht. The conservation and reconstruction of many of the items—damaged by grave robbers in antiquity—have taken almost a century to complete. For the first time since they were placed in the tomb, the assemblage will be displayed in its entirety.

The Tomb of Djehutynakht by Tim Reid (The Egyptians, October 17, 2009)

I have long been fascinated by tomb 10a at el Bersha, the tombs occupant a Governor was buried in what may be the finest surviving coffin of the middle kingdom, his wife in the tomb next to him and what might be the largest collection of funerary models ever found in Egypt.

Head Check No. 2:  Djed-Hor and Ancient Brain Surgery

In the days leading up to the procedure, the priest Djed-Hor was much given to fits of screaming. 

Who knows how it began?  A slip down the temple stairs ending with a nasty bump to the head?  A sucker punch from a drunken parishioner?  A beer jug thrown by an angry Mrs. Djed-Hor, no longer buying the “But I’m a priest of the fertility god!” excuse for that unfamiliar perfume on his vestments?  Somehow, Djed-Hor took a vicious knock to the eye that broke bone and seems to have led to a very bad infection that spread to his brain.  The result was a pressure inside his skull that was so dreadfully painful that his fellow priests resorted to a drastic measure—brain surgery.

Djed-Hor was a priest of Min who lived at Akhmim, a prominent town sacred to that deity, around 2,600 years ago.  His mummy was found during excavations of a cemetery to the east of Akhmim which began in 1884 and continued for over a decade, uncovering thousands of mummies that have since made their way into museums all over the world.  Djed-Hor’s head found its way to the Milwaukee Public Museum where mummy forensics revealed evidence that he had possibly been subjected to trepanation, a procedure where a hole is made in the skull to relieve pressure on the brain.

So was it successful?  Dr. Carter Lupton, Head of Anthropology and History at the Milwaukee Public Museum, and Dr. Jonathan Elias, his research partner, decided to learn what they could.  When Djed-Hor’s skull was originally scanned back in 1986, researchers did not have sufficient computer power to generate the sort of 3D images and virtual fly-throughs that we have today.  As part of the Akhmim Mummy Studies Consortium, Dr.s Lupton and Elias revisited Djed-Hor’s head.  If they could find evidence that the hole had begun to heal, then the Good Priest may have lived to scream for a few weeks longer.

Mummy Mystery—A collaboration between the Milwaukee Public Museum and GE Healthcare to scan three mummies from Egypt and Peru reveals evidence of ancient brain surgery (April 20, 2011)

Museum Mummies to get CT Scan by staff (Associate Press/WTMJ)

An Egyptian man may have survived brain surgery around 600 B.C. and the Milwaukee Public Museum wants to find out for sure.  Officials there plan to do computerized tomography, or CT scans, on three mummies on Tuesday. The Egyptian man may have had a procedure called trepanation — which involves scraping or drilling into the skull to possibly relieve pressure on the brain — and survived for at least a short time.

Scanning Mummies:  GE Healthcare Unlocks Secrets of the Past by staff (GE Reports, April 19, 2011)

One of the Egyptian mummies, named Djed-Hor, was first scanned in 1986. Then again in 2006, another scan using better technology revealed a silver dollar-sized hole in his skull, leading the anthropologists to conclude he had undergone a primitive form of brain surgery. Now they hope 3D imaging can confirm a new theory that Djed-Hor survived the horrific procedure, and even lived for a time afterwards.

CT Scans Help Unravel Mummy Mystery by staff (GE Healthcare, April 20, 2011)

One of the museum’s mummies, a 2,600 year old named Djed-Hor from the Akhmim region in Egypt, appears to have had a precise section of his skull removed through trepanation – an ancient, rudimentary procedure designed to relieve pressure from the brain.

Incredible Journey:  Identifying of the Mummy of Ramesses I

It all started with a lost goat.

One bright day in the mid-1800’s a man named Abd el-Rassul was searching for his wayward goat near the ancient site of Deir el-Bahri, the location of Hatshepsut’s remarkable temple Djeser-Djeseru (“Holy of the Holies”), near modern-day Luxor.  Abd found his goat bleating up to him from what turned out to be the shaft of a tomb—and Abd’s meal ticket for the next few years.

This was no ordinary tomb.  Abd and his goat had stumbled upon a cache of noble and royal mummies, forty in all, dating from the New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Periods.  They had been relocated to this central cache—one of two—during the Twenty-First Dynasty in an effort to restore mummies whose tombs had been robbed.  Now they were here, along with what remained of their funeral goods and treasures, before a wide-eyed Abd el-Rassul and his lucky goat.  Or at least that is the story.

This could have been a great moment for Egyptology, as it eventually would prove to be, but to Abd el-Rassul antiquities were only worth what someone was willing to pay in cash.  Calling the Egyptian government to report the discovery would pay him little, if anything.  But a treasure trove like this could be parceled out and sold on the black market as needed, which is exactly what Abd and his brothers did, at least until the authorities caught onto their game. 

Abd el-Rassul (in white on the left) with Gaston Maspero (on right, reclining) at the entrance to DB320

The el-Rassul brothers had a pretty good run while it lasted, pawning small items like amulets and shabtis to collectors.  But when the tomb was fully excavated and catalogued in 1881, it seemed that some of the el-Rassuls’ scores were bigger than what could fit into a rucksack. 

Cataloging the site is standard to all archeological digs, and is of extra importance in mummy forensics because this is usually where you begin to get an idea of whose mummy you have found.  Sometimes this is as easy as reading the name on the walls, but in a situation like the cache at Deir el-Bahri (now officially called DB320, or alternately TT320), where scores of mummies have been relocated, knowing what artifacts were found in the proximity of which mummies might be the only clue to who is who.  But in DB320, the team working the site was intrigued by what mummy was not found with a particular artifact.  

When the mummies had been relocated the priests in charge made lists of who had been interred in which cache.  The list for DB320 included Pharaoh Ramesses I, and sure enough, a coffin bearing his name was found within the site.  But the coffin was empty, and none of the other mummies in the cache could be attributed to Ramesses I.  At some point between the Twenty-First Dynasty and the 1881 inventory, the mummy of Ramesses I had gone missing.  Could the Rassul brothers have actually sold the mummy of Pharaoh Ramesses I?

Enter Thomas Barnett, Niagara Falls’ answer to P. T. Barnum.  Barnett had opened a gallery of curiosities that was part museum and part carnival sideshow, the Niagara Falls Museum and Daredevil Hall of Fame.  While obviously having an element of kitsch, Barnett seems to have made a serious attempt to blend local history, world culture, and shock value into something akin to an educational experience.  It was in this spirit that, between 1857 and 1861 he dispatched his son, Sidney, on three separate expeditions to Egypt to acquire Egyptian… stuff.

No Egyptian Wing is complete without a mummy, and in 1860 a member of Sidney Barnett’s party, James Douglas, acquired a mummy for the Niagara Falls Museum for a grand total of seven pounds.  Barnett’s party was known to have purchased artifacts from a dealer named Mustapha Aga Ayat, who was known to have done business with Abd el-Rassul.  The year—1860—is a good match.  When DB320 was “officially” discovered in 1881 the going story was that it had actually been discovered in the 1860’s.  Did the mummy Ayat sold to Douglas come from Abd el-Rassul?  Could it have been Ramesses I? 

Was seven pounds a king’s ransom?  Again, we turn to mummy forensics. 

First there is the simple unaided visual analysis.  Although far from scientific, anyone can see that the mummy bears a very strong resemblance to the mummies of Ramesses I’s son and grandson, Seti I and Ramesses II.  The trained eye of an Egyptologist can ascertain other details that may not be as obvious.  In the 1980’s Dr. Arne Eggebrecht noted that the mummy’s posture was appropriate for a royal man from the time of Ramesses I.  The positioning of the arms crossed over the chest, with the right hand on top, does not appear until the New Kingdom, and is exclusive to royal males.

Other signs pointed to a royal embalmment.  Although not confirmed beyond unaided observation, the mystery mummy’s fingernails appear to have been painted with henna, an indicator of high status.  The toes appear to have been individually wrapped, which also indicates a pricy mummification.  The mummy’s left hand appears to have once clutched something, such as a scepter.  The mummy was definitely looking like royalty.

The opportunity for more comprehensive forensic analysis came in 1999, when the Niagara Falls Museum permanently closed its doors and the Egyptian collection, mummy included, was acquired by Dr. Peter Lacovara for the Carlos Museum at Emory University.  Dr. Lacovara was also intrigued by the possibility that the Niagara Falls mummy could be Pharaoh Ramesses I, so he decided to take forensics to the next level.  In March, 2000, the mummy had its day with the CT scanner at Emory University Hospital.

The CT scan of the mystery mummy shows that the internal organs were expertly removed and replaced with rolls of linen. Solidified resin (see arrow) finishes the picture of an Eighteenth Dynasty royal mummification (Courtesy of RadioGraphics)

The CT scan added further weight to the theory that the mystery mummy was a New Kingdom royal male, and thus likely the missing Ramesses I.  The embalming incision (the cut from which the body’s entrails were removed) was expertly done and consistent with New Kingdom practices.  The scan also revealed that expert care was given to assuring the mummy’s heart was left in place and the brain properly removed, both indicators of high-quality mummification.  X-ray analysis of bone degeneration in the mummy’s spine suggests an age of at least 45 at the time of death. 

It seems very likely that the mystery mummy from the Niagara Falls Museum and Daredevil Hall of Fame could be that of Ramesses I.  Further analysis, such as genetic testing, could close this case for good.

The Mummy Who Would be King: NOVA/PBS—The unusual search for Ramesses I, from the holy site of Deir el-Bahri to the Niagara Falls Museum and Daredevil Hall of Fame to the Carlos Museum (January 23, 2010).

Click here to view the embedded video.

The Mummy Who Would Be King (Nova/PBS)

The companion website to the Nova documentary.

Ramesses I: The Search for the Lost Pharaoh (Michael C. Carlos Museum/Emory University)

Official website dedicated to the history of Pharaoh Ramesses I, how his mummy came to the Carlos Museum, and how he was identified.

The Mystery Mummy by Mark Rose (Archaeology, March/April 2003)

If this is a royal mummy, how can we identify which pharaoh it is? Scholars are debating the evidence from a close examination of the mummy and the mummification techniques used on it; from accounts of the mid-nineteenth-century antiquities trade in Luxor and the discovery of a royal mummy cache at Deir el-Bahri; and modern scientific techniques including X-ray images, CAT scans, and facial profiling.

U.S. Museum to Return Ramesses I Mummy to Egypt by Hillary Mayell (National Geographic News, April 30, 2003)

The royal mummy and four fragments are part of a 145-piece collection of mummies, coffins, and artifacts the Carlos museum purchased in 1999 from a tacky museum in Niagara Falls that also featured a “Freaks of Nature” exhibit.

Copyright by Keith Payne, 2011.  All rights reserved.

Amazing Egyptians

The Bowes Museum

Barnard Castle, County Durham, DL 12 8NP, UK

July 12, 2011 through August 31, 2011

“An exhibition aimed at families, exploring the customs and traditions surrounding life and death in Ancient Egypt. Follow the journey to the afterlife from the magical spells and the strange superstitions to the bandaging of bodies and the fascinating burials. With treasures abounding and organs galore, this exhibition promises to give visitors a real taste of how the Ancient Egyptians saw the afterlife.”

Cleopatra:  The Search for

the Last Queen of Egypt

Cincinnati Museum Center at Union Terminal

1301 Western Ave., Cincinnati, OH  45203

February 18, 2011 through September 5, 2011

“The world of Cleopatra VII, which has been lost to the sea and sand for nearly 2,000 years, has surfaced at Cincinnati Museum Center with Cleopatra: The Exhibition…the exhibition features nearly 150 artifacts from Cleopatra’s time and will take you inside the present-day search for the elusive queen, which extends from the sands of Egypt to the depths of the Bay of Aboukir near Alexandria.  See statuary, jewelry, daily items, coins and religious tokens that archaeologists have uncovered from the time surrounding Cleopatra’s rule, all of which are visiting the U.S. for the first time.”

Click here to view the embedded video.

Click here to view the embedded video.

Expedition to Ancient Egypt &

Junior Archaeologist Program

Rosicrucian Egyptian Museum

1342 Naglee Ave., San Jose, CA  95126

Permanent program

The Rosicrucian Egyptian Museum has an Expedition to Ancient Egypt program for visiting schools that includes a curriculum leading up to the actual visit.  A Journey Though Ancient Egypt consists of an expeditionary field trip to the Rosicrucian Egyptian Museum and suggested classroom studies prior to and following the museum visit. The ten days of classroom studies help you prepare for your Expedition, so that your students and chaperones will be able to derive the maximum benefit from the visit, and they will greatly enhance the museum experience.  Download the curriculum here.

The Rosicrucian Egyptian Museum also has a Junior Archaeologist Program.  The Rosicrucian Egyptian Museum presents its Junior Archaeologist training program for young adventurers ages 5 to 17.  This program includes behind the scenes training, hands-on learning opportunities, and the most fun graduation ceremony this side of the Nile!  The Junior Archaeologist program is free with any Friend of the Museum Family Membership.

Indiana Jones and the

Adventure of Archaeology

Montréal Science Centre

King Edward Pier, Old Port, Montréal

April 28, 2011 through September 18, 2011

Showbiz meets science..  “Indiana Jones and the Adventure of Archaeology, presented by the National Geographic Society, immerses you in the science and history of field archaeology. Walk in the footsteps of beloved film hero Indiana Jones as you embark on this interactive museum adventure.”

Click here to view the embedded video.

Click here to view the embedded video.

Life on the Nile:  An Exhibition for Children about Ancient Egypt

Archäologisches Museum Colombischlössle

Rotteckring 5, 79098 Freiburg, DE

March 17, 2011 through October 16, 2011

An exhibition that takes children and young people on an exciting excursion into the world of the pharaohs. On a real Egyptian sarcophagus colorfully painted pictures tell the stories of gods and the afterlife.  Workshops on hieroglyphic writing, ancient Egyptian cosmetics and clothing, musical instruments, the exotic scents that drifted through the marketplace.  Much more!

Lost Egypt:  Ancient Secrets,

Modern Science

Mayborn Museum, Baylor University

1300 S. University Parks, Waco, TX  76706

May 28, 2011 through September 5, 2011

“Unearth the secrets of an ancient Egyptian world in an interactive exhibition featuring the hidden stories and artifacts of a lost civilization…See a real human mummy, several animal mummies, plus scans, forensic facial reconstructions, and for the first time ever, a life-size rapid prototype of a human mummy. Witness art and artifacts from the daily life and funerary culture of ancient Egypt. Connect to real scientists working on projects in Egypt through video interviews and photographs from the field. Interpret ancient Egyptian art, decipher hieroglyphics and examine material remains using the tools and technology of archaeologists to unearth the mysteries of Egypt, its history, culture, and people.”

Includes an Egypt-themed summer film series catering to the tastes of younger viewer—from Abbot and Costello to Scooby Doo—and “Experience Egypt Wednesdays”.

Click here to view the embedded video.

Video from the Fort Worth Museum of Science and History run of Lost Egypt

Treasures of the Earth:  Whose Tomb?

The Indianapolis Children’s Museum

3000 N. Meridian St., Indianapolis, IN  46208

June 11, 2011 through permanent

Part of the National Geographic Treasures of the Earth exhibit, the Children’s Museum of Indianapolis has recreated part of the tomb of Seti I for kids to explore.

“Descend into a recreation of the longest, deepest, and most complete of any tomb in the Egyptian Valley of the Kings. Analyze the intricate details of the tomb walls, explore the burial chamber, and work together as a family to solve key challenges. Whose tomb is this? Where might the mysterious tunnel lead? All of the investigations are based on the real site.”

While at the Indianapolis Children’s Museum kids might want to explore modern Egypt by visiting the Take Me There: Egypt interactive exhibit.

Click here to view the embedded video.

Click here to view the embedded video.

Tutankhamun:  The Golden King

and the Great Pharaohs

Science Museum of Minnesota

120 W. Kellogg Blvd., St. Paul, MN  55102

February 18, 2011 through September 5, 2011

Tutankhamun: The Golden King and the Great Pharaohs takes you back 5,000 years in time and explores what it was like to live like a pharaoh through the “Golden Age,” when Egypt was at the height of power and artistry. The exhibition spans 2,000 years and some of the most notable leaders of ancient Egypt. More than 100 artifacts from the tombs and temples of King Tut, his ancestors and contemporaries bring this rich history to life.

Click here to view the embedded video.

Click here to view the embedded video.

The Tutankhamun:  The Golden King and the Great Pharaohs exhibition will travel to the Museum of Fine Arts Houston (1001 Bissonnet at Main, Houston, TX 77005), opening October 16, 2011 and running through April 15, 2012.

Copyright by Keith Payne, 2011.  All rights reserved.

In addition to providing the full simulation illustrating Jean-Pierre’s theory in detail, the Khufu Reborn universe is interactive.  You can actually navigate you way around the Giza Plateau of 4,500 years ago.  But if you aren’t ready to dive into Khufu’s world just yet, this Em Hotep tour and tutorial will equip you for the journey.

On January 27, 2011, Khufu Reborn premiered at La Géode in Paris, France.  This was the official launch of Episode Two of Jean-Pierre Houdin’s work with the Great Pyramid of Pharaoh Khufu.  The presentation was a stunning larger than life 3D simulation of the Giza Plateau, the pyramid, and a detailed explanation of Jean-Pierre’s theory.  But if you were unable to attend the premier, Dassault Systèmes has brought it to you, right to your desktop.

Marc Chartier, Jean-Pierre Houdin, and Keith Payne at the premier of Khufu Reborn (Courtesy of Marc Chartier)

Now you can log on to the Project Khufu section of the Dassault Systèmes website, download a small plugin, and see the presentation in its entirety, but with an advantage those of us in attendance did not have—at any point during the presentation you can take control and travel to anyplace in the Khufu Reborn universe to look at things in as much detail as you wish.  Here is the link to the site:

Click Here to Go Back 4,500 Years to Khufu’s Egypt!

Feel free to click on and jump right in!  But if you would like a short guided tour, then do read on.

The Khufu Reborn online interactive simulation is rendered in such detail that it really has to be seen to be believed.  And despite having all of the eye-popping graphics and navigational freedom of a cutting edge first-person video game, this universe is not by any stretch make-believe.  The environment is based on accurate surveys of the Giza Plateau and the pyramid itself, with the clock turned back 4,500 years.  Ancient details, based on up-to-date archaeological evidence, have been recreated in a way that lets you move through the Giza Plateau of Khufu and his Master Builder, Hemienu.

Click here to view the embedded video.

When you first go to the site you will land at the Khufu Reborn: The Story Continues page where you can watch a brief introductory video.  The video gives you an idea of how Jean-Pierre Houdin’s theory has evolved and will set the stage for the journey you are about to embark upon.  After the video, click on the Discover a unique interactive 3D experience with 3dVia button located below the video.

The first thing that will happen is you will be prompted to install the 3dVia software from the Dassault Systèmes website.  You need the 3dVia software to run the simulation, and since the software comes direct from Dassault Systèmes you can be assured that it is safe, virus and ad-ware free, and that your privacy will be in no way compromised.  Once the software is installed on your computer you are ready to visit the Giza Plateau of 4,500 years ago.

You next find yourself at the loading screen for the simulation, as shown below.

Note the blue progress bar in the lower right-hand of the screen.  This bar does not move at a regular pace and will possibly seem to freeze up as the simulation is loading, but be patient!  The Khufu Reborn simulation is a very detailed program and some of the segments can take a while to load, and you may begin to suspect that the program is frozen.  You may even get a pop-up window saying that the plug-in appears to have stopped, asking if you want to cancel it.  Choose “no” as it is almost certainly still loading.  The wait will be worth it.

Another thing discovered during beta testing was that pulling up another application, or even another window from your browser, can cause the simulation to actually lock up, so I would recommend that you visit the Khufu Reborn universe at a time when you can dedicate your computer to just exploring the simulation.  Give yourself about an hour for your first visit so you have time for all of the narrated segments, as well as time to explore on your own.  It is, after all, interactive!

After the simulation finishes loading you will be at the intro screen, as appears below.

There are five different sections, and for your first visit you might want to take the entire tour, starting with the first section, The two enigmas of the Great Pyramid.

When you click on two enigmas you will again be greeted with the loading screen.  Allow the program time to load.  The gods of Egypt will be impressed with your patience.  I would again reiterate that while the loading screen is present don’t pull up another program or browser window.  This will displease the gods, who will punish you with a genuinely locked up simulation.  The good news is that once the segments are loaded the program is extremely stable.  While writing this tutorial I was able to switch back and forth between Google Chrome, MS Word, and Photoshop while the simulation was loaded and running without a single crash.

The Two Enigmas section will begin with a flight up the Nile to the Valley Temple and the scene of Khufu’s embalming.  The narration will begin, explaining what you are seeing.  After that we are again off and flying—up the course of Khufu’s Royal Causeway, over the Upper Temple, and circling around for a great view of the Great Pyramid.

This might be a good opportunity for your first experiment with the interactive part of the simulation.  If you click on the button labeled Free Navigation Mode in the lower right of the screen you will find that the narrative stops and the buttons change to say Normal, Expert, and Play Mode.  If the Expert button is lit up, click on Normal.  The screen should now have some navigation controls in the upper right of the screen.

The navigation controls operate the virtual camera that flies you through the simulation.  With the narration paused, you are now in full control.  The controls are pretty easy to use.  The +/- on the left side of the controls allow you to tip the camera angle up or down.  The directional keys in the center of the circle move the camera forward and backward and from left to right.  The +\- on the right of the control allows you to zoom in and out.  The left/right arrows at the bottom allow you to pan the camera circularly left and right.  As simple as these commands are, they allow you to travel practically anywhere on the landscape and observe from any angle and distance.

In the above image I have navigated over to get a closer look at the boat pits.  Take a little time playing with the navigation controls to get a feel for how they work.  The movement is very intuitive and in no time you will be flying around the virtual environment like Horus himself.  When you are done, press the Play Mode button and the camera automatically reorients itself and the narration resumes where it left off.

Once the two enigmas segment has finished you will want to return to the intro screen to select the next segment.  You will notice that at all times when in the simulation there are three small icons in the upper left of the screen.  The first icon, shaped like a house, is the Home button.  Press this at any time during or after a segment to return to the intro screen.  The middle icon, with the question mark is a Help button.  The third icon, shaped like a gear, pulls up the Options panel.

The Options panel allows you to toggle the music and narration on and off, as well as switch to full screen mode.  You will also notice that you have an option to immerse yourself more fully into the Khufu Reborn universe with 3D.  You can either set the simulation to work with a 3D TV, or you can go the old fashioned route and don your 3D shades.  The old cardboard type with the red and blue lenses will work just fine.  After checking out the Options panel, click on the Home button to return to the intro screen.

Back at the intro screen, you will notice that if you move the cursor over the next section, The genius of the builders, that you have three options:  the Fifth Year, the Fourteenth Year, and the Fifteenth Year, each representing different phases of the construction leading up to the King’s Chamber.

For your first trip through I recommend taking the sections in order so you get both a fuller understanding of Jean-Pierre Houdin’s theory and a complete idea of what the Khufu Reborn universe contains.  The simulation is intended to be enjoyable and educational, but it is also a tool for your own research, so it is worth the time invested to learn how it works.

Once the genius of the builders—the fifth year segment has loaded you will notice that there is an arrow icon on the left side of the screen.  If you run your cursor over this icon the Timeline will appear, as pictured below.

The Timeline is divided into chapters and you can either move the segment forward or backward using the vertical sliding bar, or jump straight to a chapter by clicking on it.  Not all segments have chapters, so the Timeline will not be available everywhere.  As always, you can pause the narration at any time and take control of the camera by clicking on the Free Navigation mode button.

The last thing we will look at is the top bar of the display where you will see buttons labeled Khufu Reborn, 3D Experience, The Story, and Clues.  You will notice that the 3D Experience button is toggled while you are in the simulation.  Khufu Reborn simply takes you back to the screen with the introduction video.  The Story gives you the option to download a pdf (or pull it up in your browser”) of the press kit that was provided at the Khufu Reborn premier.  This tells the story of how Jean-Pierre Houdin became interested in the Great Pyramid, how Dassault Systèmes became involved in the project through their Passion for Innovation program, and touches on some of Dassault Systèmes’ other current projects on the Giza Plateau.

Clues gives you an opportunity to evaluate the evidence for Jean-Pierre’s theory for yourself.  There are two videos—one explaining the counterweight system in the Grand Gallery and another explaining “Bob’s Room”, the corner room first explored by Bob Brier.  There is also another pdf file you can view and download called “Khufu’s Pyramid—The “Inside-Out” Construction Theory:  34 Clues in Support for the Theory”.  If you are skeptical of Jean-Pierre’s theory, then this is the place to get some answers.  Here Jean-Pierre lays out the physical evidence for his theory in detail.

That pretty much concludes this guided tour of the Khufu Reborn online interactive experience.  Go forth now and explore!

Click Here to Go Back 4,500 Years to Khufu’s Egypt!

Copyright by Keith Payne, 2011.  All rights reserved.

Unless otherwise stated, all images are provided courtesy of Jean-Pierre Houdin and Dassault Systèmes, copyright 2011, all rights reserved.

Since that article ran, the Museum of Man has kindly provided Em Hotep with some photos from the exhibit, so we are returning the favor with a closer look at the exhibit itself.  We will also take an in-depth look at the story behind one of the displays—Ronald Beckett’s trip to New Guinea to help a village set up a program of better mummy maintenance.

Modern Day Mummy:  The Art and Science of Mummification opened at the San Diego Museum of Man on June 10, 2011, just in time for the Seventh World Congress on Mummy Studies just across town at the University of San Diego.  The two events had more in common than mummies and a chance to enjoy the Southern California weather.  Aside from promoting general awareness about the field of mummy studies, both the Congress on Mummy Studies and the Modern Day Mummy exhibit addressed the practical, ethical, and social issues that researchers often face while working in the field.

Click here to view the embedded video.

The Modern Day Mummy exhibit at the San Diego Museum of Man

Mummies are not always very mobile.  Even something as simple as moving a mummy from one part of a museum to another can be a logistical ballet, and conducting mummy forensics often involves transporting a mummy from a museum in one country to a medical center in another.  But what do you do when a mummy won’t budge?  What if, for practical or cultural reasons, the mummy has to remain in situ?

But before we get into these issues, let’s check back in with Mumab, the star of the show.

Multimodal Imaging: One Layer, Probe, and Photo at a Time

Fortunately, sometimes the mummies are willing to cooperate with researchers, and Mumab is probably the best sport of all.  One of the best tools for paleoimaging—the science of using medical and industrial imaging tools to collect images of cultural remains and artifacts—is CT scanning.  CT scanning, also called CAT scanning, is a type of x-ray imaging that takes multiple cross-sectional pictures of a body or artifact allowing it to be viewed it in layers.  CT scans are non-invasive, do not require that a mummy be unwrapped, and can even take detailed images of a mummy that is inside a sarcophagus.

Click here to view the embedded video.

CT scanning in mummy forensics (Courtesy of the Brooklyn Museum)

Mumab’s display at the San Diego Museum of Man includes a full-size recreation of a CT scanner, along with interactive controls that allow visitors to get a feel for what it is like to perform their own analysis of a mummy.  One of the last things Mumab’s creators did was take a full set of CT scans of the mummy and those images have been incorporated into the interactive display to complete the experience.

The controls for the simulated CT scan are much simpler than in real life, but as visitors explore Mumab’s body layer by layer they get a pretty good sense for how CT scanning allows researchers to diagnose the person under the wrappings, how they might have lived and died, and how the process of mummification both preserved and changed the body.   The video portion of the display uses tomography—a way of using  x-ray and other types of imaging to allow you to visually “move” through a body or object—to reconstruct Mumab using his actual CT scans.

CT scanning is only one of several means of paleoimaging, and the Modern Day Mummy exhibit introduces us to the three most common types used by mummy researchers.  CT scanning falls under the category of radiography—image collection that utilizes different ways of x-raying a subject to get a comprehensive view of its internal structure.  CT scanning and conventional radiography help researchers understand what is going on “under the wraps.”   Combined with tomography software, radiographic images allow you to take a virtual tour of a mummy.

Another type of paleoimagery is endoscopy.  Endoscopy simply means to look inside of something, but more technically it refers to the use of an endoscope, a tool that allows a lens to be inserted into a body via a rigid or flexible probe.  The lens can either connect to an eyepiece, a camera, or a tomography computer.  Endoscopes are more intrusive than radiography, but they are also more portable, making them very useful in the field.     Also, whereas radiography requires tomography software to simulate a 3D view of a body, an endoscope allows you to examine the inside as it actually appears.

Conventional photography is still one of the most important tools in the field (Courtesy of Isawnyu)

The third tool in the paleoimagery toolbox is simple conventional photography.  Photographs provide the most basic means of collecting visual data and cameras are generally the most portable of the three primary tools for paleoimagery.  Photography has been an element of field work practically since the invention of the camera, and is useful for everything from documenting artifacts to surveying the entire site.

The Museum of Man exhibit has plenty of conventional photography to show the role of the camera in mummy forensics, as well as the CT scan simulation for exploring Mumab in depth.  There is even an endoscope visitors can inspect.  The exhibit demonstrates that each of these tools offers a different mode of examining and imaging the mummy.  They each have their own strengths and weaknesses, but when used together in a complimentary fashion they provide the most complete means of analysis.

Called multimodal imaging, this varied approach allows researchers to gain a more complete picture of what is going on inside a mummy.  Conventional photography is good for documenting the site and its contents, but it really only shows us what a mummy looks like from the outside.  X-ray and CT scanning allow us to see what is going on inside, but only in 2D.  Endoscopy allows the researcher to explore the contour of hollow sections of the mummy, but is limited to what is directly in front of the lens.  But in combination, these three tools allow a mummy to be explored in detail, inside and out.

Click here to view the embedded video.

Multimodal imaging allows radiography and endoscopy to be combined into tomography software to produce a 3D fly-through of a mummy (Courtesy of Berkshire Museum)

This is all well and good, but what about those situations where you can’t deliver the mummy to the CT scanner, when practically all of the analysis has to take place in the field?  This brings us to another display in the Modern Day Mummy exhibit and introduces us to the work of Drs. Ronald Beckett and Gerald Conlogue, the men who literally wrote the book on paleoimaging.

Moimango—Another Modern Ancient Mummy

If Mumab shows us what mummy forensics looks like in the lab, then the display labeled “A Mummy Whispers” takes us about as far out in the field as you can get, all the way to the little village of Koke in the region of Papua, New Guinea.  The scene is a life-sized diorama that shows a mostly skeletal mummy sitting in a chair.  On one side of the mummy a modern-looking man is preparing to insert an endoscope, while on the other side a not-so-modern-looking man is examining the mummy using more conventional means—his eyes.

The scene actually recreates an important moment in mummy forensics history.  The fellow on the right is Dr. Ronald Beckett, who could rightly be called one of the founders of the field of paleoimagery.  The fellow on the left is Gemtasu, the chief of the village of Koke.  The fellow in the center is Moimango, Gemtasu’s father.  Aside from showing how researchers have developed strategies for conducting sophisticated mummy forensics in the field, this diorama represents a wonderful story that touches on all aspects of the Modern Day Mummy exhibit:  the ethical, the practical, and the social.

Ron Beckett, Jerry Conlogue, and the Emerging Field of Paleoimagery

Dr. Ronald Beckett

Ron Beckett began his professional life in 1977 as a respiratory therapist and supervisor at Tucson General Hospital.  It was during this time that he began teaching endoscopy at Pima Community College, and his practical experience with respiratory/pulmonary specialists led to him making his own contributions and refinements to endoscopic procedures. In 1983 he moved to Rhode Island where he started the Respiratory Care program at the Community College of Rhode Island.

Dr. Jerry Conlogue

Beckett continued to explore new ways of applying endoscopy to pulmonary research and applications, and served as the Chairman of the Department of Cardiopulmonary Sciences and Diagnostic Imaging for 23 years at Quinnipiac University in Hamden, CT. In the mid-90’s Dr. Beckett developed an interest in mummy research.  With the encouragement of Dr. Jerry Conlogue, a colleague who shared his interest in mummies, Dr. Beckett realized that endoscopy could provide a new dimension to analyzing mummies that radiographic imagery alone could not offer.

Drs. Beckett and Conlogue perfected their methods with animal mummies like this cat

In 1996 Beckett and Conlogue began testing methods of radiographic and endoscopic imaging on mummified remains, which led to an opportunity to put their techniques to work analyzing Peruvian mummies at the University of Pennsylvania at Philadelphia.  Back in Connecticut they continued their work with human and animal mummies at the Yale Peabody Museum of Natural History and became regular presenters at the annual meetings of the Paleopathology Association.  It was also at this time that Beckett and Conlogue began to define the methodology of multimodal imagery.

They continued to refine their methods of data collection using the various tools of radiography, magnetic resonance, and endoscopy, and laid the foundations for what would culminate in their 2009 book, Paleoimaging:  Field Applications for Cultural Remains and Artifacts.  But as paleoimaging continued to develop as a discipline, Dr. Beckett realized that there was an increasing need for ways of conducting research in the field rather than in the lab, so he and Dr. Conlogue began looking for ways to take the lab to the mummies.

It seems they found their niche, and soon Drs. Beckett and Conlogue were in high demand worldwide.  When mummy paleoimaging required a home visit, Beckett and Conlogue were the doctors-on-call.  But in 2008, Ron Beckett received his most unusual invitation ever.

Mummy Maintenance… 1,000 Feet Up, On a Cliff, In the Rainforest

The Anga are a collection of people in New Guinea who are divided into tribes according to dialect, with these tribes being further subdivided into local clans.  Some of these clans practice their own unique form of mummification, and it was from the leader of one of these clans that Dr. Beckett received his strange invitation.  Gemtasu, an Angan leader at the village of Koke, needed help developing new ways of preserving and maintaining the village mummies.

Mummies watching over the village from 1,000 feet up (Courtesy Healing Seekers)

The Koke mummies, unlike those of Egypt, are not placed in a tomb or otherwise removed from the realm of the living.  To the contrary, they are placed 1,000 feet up in chairs on a cliff overlooking the village.  On certain occasions, the mummies are brought down from the cliff to participate in village life.  The people of Koke do not have a concept of an afterlife that is separate from the natural world, and their spirits are believed to wander the forest and interact with the living through their preserved bodies.

Gemtasu was concerned about the condition of one mummy in particular, that of his father, Moimango.  Like his father, Gemtasu planned to be mummified after death, so he wanted to leave a legacy of better mummy maintenance for his descendents.  Gemtasu learned about Dr. Beckett and his work through their mutual friend, the photographer Ulla Lohmann, and invited him to come to Koke to see what could be done to repair and better protect their mummies.

Click here to view the embedded video.

Ronald Beckett and Andrew Nelson describe their project with the Koke villagers

For Ron Beckett, it was the opportunity of a lifetime.  Not only would he be able to try new means of mummy forensics and in-the-field paleoimaging, he would have the chance to study mummies in a cultural context where the living directly interacted with their preserved dead.

The fascinating thing about the Anga mummies, Beckett said, was that they were still a part of village life, not ancient artifacts as they are in Egypt. In fact, “We were actually introduced to the mummies as if they were living people.” (Source:  New Haven Register:  Village mummy ritual withstands test of time)

But it would also involve new challenges.  Not only would there be the obvious cultural considerations, Beckett would also be facing new environmental conditions.  New Guinea is extremely humid, the exact opposite of traditional mummy territory.  How did they create these mummies in such a moist climate?  And the idea of leaving the mummies exposed to the elements a thousand feet up on a cliff was just asking for trouble.  Everything seemed counterintuitive to what he knew about making and preserving mummies.

Another challenge was sustainability.  The people of Koke would not have access to the sorts of materials a museum curator might use to restore a mummy, so Dr. Beckett would have to learn how to make use of the materials the Angan people could easily obtain and then train them in how to use these resources with their mummies.  Success meant learning three things about the mummies:  how they were made, how the people of Koke interacted with them, and how to restore and maintain them using indigenous materials.

Smoked Body

One of the first questions Dr. Beckett confronted was how mummification occurred in a place as humid as New Guinea.  Natural mummification was pretty much out of the question.  Anything that dies in the rainforest is reclaimed by nature pretty quickly through scavenging and decay.  But even artificial mummification would pose challenges.  Preserving a body is a race with the devil to remove all the moisture before decomposition can take hold, and rainforests are not known for their aridity.  But the Anga found a way.

A smoked body mummy (Courtesy of Ulla Lohmann / National Geographic)

The Anga call their mummification technique smoked body, pretty much for the same reason we call smoked turkey “smoked turkey.”  Food meats are smoked by placing them in a confined space with a wood-burning fire.  The fire dehydrates the meat and the smoke creates a high-acid environment that discourages bacteria.

The ancient Egyptians packed bodies in natron for similar reasons—to draw out moisture and change the chemistry of the body in a way that prevented bacterial spoilage, except natron lowers acidity rather than raises it.  Either way, what works for pork and pastrami works for people.

You may recall from the previous article about Mumab, the modern ancient mummy, that the Egyptians embalmed their mummies in a special tent called the ibu tent.  Dr. Beckett learned that the Angan people have a special hut that serves the same purpose—a safe, controlled environment for dehydrating the body.  But the similarities pretty much end there.

The mummification hut works like a smokehouse and on the same principles.  A fire within an enclosed environment desiccates the body and keeps the humidity moving outward.  The smoke serves a dual purpose.  As mentioned above, it raises the acidity level on and around the body, but it also keeps insects out of the hut, and insects serve an important role in breaking down dead organic material.  To help speed the dehydrating process, the body is punctured with bamboo knives and the deceased’s relatives massage the tissues around these wounds, literally “milking” the bodily fluids out.

Also unlike the Egyptians, the Angan people do not remove the entrails from the torso.  These soft and wet organs are the first to begin decomposing, so the Angans developed another means of draining the body which Dr. Beckett delicately refers to as an anal spigot.  A bamboo tube is inserted into the sphincter to allow the fluids to evacuate.  The procedure is very effective, allowing the Angans to mummify their deceased with their organs intact.

A mummy in situ (Courtesy Healing Seekers)

The bodies are mummified in an upright sitting position in the chair they will eventually occupy on the cliff face.  Once they are fully dried out they are covered with a layer of ochre, clay that is high in mineral oxides, giving them a reddish color.

The ochre serves a ceremonial purpose, but also helps protect and preserve the mummy.  The entire process takes about 30 days.

Click here to view the embedded video.

A trip up the cliff to visit the Koke mummies (courtesy of Healing Seekers)

The next question Dr. Beckett had to address was how the villagers interacted with the mummies.  He knew that sitting on the cliff face, exposed to the wind and sun, had to take its toll.  But what other experiences did the mummies have to endure?  Periodically they were brought down from the cliff to the village, and that had to involve some risk.  But when Dr. Beckett saw the way Gemtasu acted with his father’s mummy he knew that the people of Koke were serious about finding new ways to care for their preserved dead.

Gemtasu and Moimango after repairs (Courtesy Ulla Lohmann / National Geographic)

It wasn’t so much the reverence with which the mummies were treated—that was to be expected.  The mummies were their way of communing with their dead ancestors, so they would obviously be treated with care.

It was more the way Gemtasu seemed to combine his veneration with a pragmatic concern for the condition of the mummy.  Andrew Nelson, an anthropologist who accompanied Beckett on the project, observed of Gemtasu:  “It’s clear he was connecting with his father at some level and he was clearly inspecting the mummy to see if there was any deterioration since the last time” (Source).

The Koke villagers were not just interested in repairing and maintaining their mummies, they wanted to continue the tradition of mummification.  But they were also open to innovation, which was why Ron Beckett had been invited to their village in the first place.  He was there on a mission of mutual gain and mutual respect.  He wanted to learn from the Angan people, and they wanted to learn from him as well.  It was an ideal situation for success, despite the environmental challenges.

The Koke villagers wanted a better way of repairing and maintaining their mummies (Courtesy Ulla Lohmann / National Geographic)

All that remained was to find ways to repair and maintain the mummies that were sustainable.  By working with the Angan people, obviously the best experts regarding their own resources, Dr. Beckett found local substitutes for the materials he used to restore mummies back home.  He learned, for example, that a resin used to secure arrowheads also made excellent glue for repairing the mummies, and in addition, was a natural insect repellant.

Ron Beckett ended up making two trips to Koke.  He was successful in helping Gemtasu repair his father’s mummy, as well as helping the people of his village learn new ways of maintaining their dead ancestors.  For his part, Dr. Beckett not only learned about Angan customs and practices regarding mummification, he was able to test and refine new ways of conducting forensics and paleoimaging in the field.  But of equal importance, he showed that by working with the local people in a respectful way and treating their deceased with dignity, it was possible to have a mutually beneficial relationship.

Meanwhile, Back in San Diego

A sarcophagus from the Museum of Man collection (Courtesy Lindsay Holmwood)

Mumab and Moimango, for all their differences, still have one thing in common:  they are both examples of artificial mummification.  Recall from the Mumab article that there are two types of mummification:  natural, which occurs without any sort of intervention, thanks to environmental conditions, and artificial, which is any sort of mummification that requires human agency to ensure preservation.  Both Mumab and Moimango are mummies that were created by design, and pretty recent ones at that.  Mumab is about sixteen years old, Moimango is about fifty.

One of the older stars of the show is a natural Peruvian mummy, aged at around 550 years.  This particular mummy owes its preservation to the hot and dry climate of Peru.  Natural mummies of this sort can be found from Southern California to Central America, in the Saharan sands of Egypt, and pretty much any sort of desert climate where a body can be desiccated before bacteria and insects can begin their destructive work.

But not all natural mummies come from hot and dry places.  Ötzi the Iceman, a mummy discovered in the Ötzal Alps on the border between Austria and Italy, was preserved by being frozen in a glacier.  The Haraldskær Woman, an Iron Age mummy found in a bog in Denmark, is an example of a “bog body”—a natural mummy preserved by perpetual cold, lack of oxygen, and immersion in highly acidic water.  The key ingredients to a natural mummification are a very hot and dry or very cold environment, absence of air circulation, and favorable soil conditions that are absorbent and/or hostile to bacteria.

Shrunken heads from Ecuador--definitely an example of artificial mummification! (Courtesy San Diego Museum of Man)

There are several more mummies to peruse at the Modern Day Mummy exhibit, including a mummified infant, a mummified hawk, and (as promised!) three shrunken heads made by the Jivaro Indians of Ecuador.

Other displays feature Egyptian tomb artifacts such as ushabtis, info graphics on topics such as honoring the dead and field forensics, and several other hands-on interactive displays.

Besides the CT scan and endoscope, visitors can use magnifying glasses to scrutinize the sorts of bugs and bacteria that help promote decomposition at a kiosk about the process of decay.  Another interesting display allows visitors to actually smell some of the leftover materials from Mumab’s mummification, including natron, frankincense, and palm, lotus and cedar oils.  Then entire exhibit is sensibly arranged, with attractive and informative signage, and works equally well whether you are “following the story” or just jumping around to what interests you.

A visit to the Modern Day Mummy:  The Art & Science of Mummification exhibit will give you a pretty good idea of how mummy researchers collect data from mummies and what sorts of things mummies can teach us about the daily lives of the people they represent—how they lived, what they ate, how they passed their time, and how they died.  You will learn how mummies were made, both intentionally and accidentally, and how researchers are improving the ways they deal with mummies and the people who love them.

There is also a lecture series that accompanies the exhibit.  For dates and topics please visit the official Modern Day Mummy website at the San Diego Museum of Man.

Modern Day Mummy will be on display through March 4, 2012.

Museum hours are 10 a.m. to 4:30 p.m. daily.  Tickets are $12.50 for adults, $7.50 for youth (ages 13-17) and seniors (62+) and $5 for children ages 3 to 12.

The museum is at 1350 El Prado in Balboa Park. Visit museumofman.org or call 619-239-2001.

Bonus Videos

Click here to view the embedded video.

An animation of a CT scan from the Science Museum of Minnesota

Click here to view the embedded video.

CT scan of Shem-en-Min, a 2,200-year-old mummy (Courtesy of HV Media Group)

Click here to view the embedded video.

Amazing tomographic video of the CT scan of a crocodile mummy

Click here to view the embedded video.

CT scanning of a 2,500-year-old mummy named Irethorrou (Courtesy of Stanford Medicine)

Copyright by Keith Payne, 2011.  All rights reserved.

The photographs “mdm00” through “mdm09” are provided courtesy of the San Diego Museum of Man, copyright 2011, all rights reserved.  The photograph Endoscope by Linda Bartlett is in the public domain.  The photographs sarcophagus at SDMoM by Lindsay Holmwood, Museum of Man by Dave Reichert and photographing a mummy in situ by isawnyu are used in accordance with the Creative Commons 2.0 License and may be reused under the same provisions.   The following photos, images, and video clips are using in accordance with the Fair Use provisions of copyright law and are reproduced for the sole purpose of promoting discussion and are not used in any way that would inhibit the sale or trade of the originals:  “cat mummy”, from the Yale Peabody Museum of Natural History, all rights reserved; “Ronald Beckett” and “Jerry Conlogue” from Quinnipiac University, all rights reserved; the stills “Smoked mummy 2” and “mummies on a cliff” from the video “Healing Seekers – PNG People of the Mummies” from Healing Seekers, all rights reserved; “Smoked body mummy”, “Gemtasu and Moimango”, and “Mummy repairs” by Ulla Lohmann from  the National Geographic production “National Geographic Explorer:  Lost Mummies of New Guinea”, all rights reserved.