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Edfu Part One: Ancient Djeba

Shemsu Sesen — Tue, 24 Nov 2009 22:11:39 +0000

Edfu is most often associated with the Temple of Horus built there during the Ptolemaic Period, but the Tell Edfu Project, directed by the Oriental Institute’s Dr. Nadine Moeller, is literally uncovering a much older story. Ancient Edfu was a persistent city that took a two-fisted approach to adversity and not only survived the first two Intermediate Periods, but flourished.

In Edfu Part One: Ancient Djeba we will look at the history of this ancient mid-sized town that shattered the myth of Egypt being a “civilization without cities.”

Aerial view of Tell Edfu and the Great Temple (Courtesy of Google Maps)

Edfu is the modern name of the ancient capital of the Nome of Horus in Upper Egypt, and it has long been sacred to that deity, particularly in his role as Horus of Behdet. For those familiar with Egypt, the name Edfu usually conjures up an image of the majestic pylons fronting the Great Temple of Horus that was constructed there during the Ptolemaic Dynasty. But the town itself has a much older history.

The Tell Edfu Project, headed up by Dr. Nadine Moeller of the Oriental Institute of Chicago, has shown that a thriving town once existed on the site, with roots going at least as far back as the Old Kingdom.

Long before the Ptolemies built their grand temple, Edfu served as an important political, religious, and economic center throughout much of ancient Egypt’s history. In a future article we will look at the Great Temple of Horus in detail and explore what we know of the beautiful and complex rites performed there in honor of Horus, Hathor, and Harsomtus. But in this article will be focusing on the ancient town, particularly as it has been revealed by the Tell Edfu Project.

The pylons of the Great Temple of Horus as seen from Tell Edfu (Photo by Gregory Marouard, Tell Edfu Project)

In ancient times this capital city was known as Djeba, which means “place of retribution,” a reference to the justice meted out to the enemies of Horus, who fought his mythical battle with the god Set at this location. By the time of the Copts the name was pronounced as Atbo, which has been handed down to us as Edfu. The sacred name of the city was Wetjeset-Hor, which means “the place where Horus is exalted.”

Tell Edfu—Layers of Egyptian History

The archaeological site, known as Tell Edfu, lies just to the west of the Great Temple of Horus. In archaeological terms, the word “tell” comes from the Hebrew tel or the Arabic tall, and refers to a mound that forms over time as a result of the by-products of human habitation. In the case of Tell Edfu, much of the mound is a result of mudbrick structures being built, eroding, and replaced with more mudbrick. Of course, that is an oversimplification—there is also a thick layer of ash resulting from early industry and a variety of other detritus. But the layers of the mound at Edfu conceal evidence of occupation from the Byzantine Period all the way back to the Old Kingdom, possibly earlier.

Located at the crossroads between the prosperous mines in the Eastern Desert, Nubia in the south, and the great Oasis of Kharga in the west, Edfu was as much a center of commerce as it was a religious center. The work of Dr. Moeller, as well as those who preceded her, shows an ancient urban center where foreign and domestic trade was conducted, taxes were paid, and social services were rendered.

Dr. Nadine Moeller, director of the Tell Edfu Project (Photo by Gregory Marouard, Tell Edfu Project)

The Tell Edfu Project is engaged in what is called “settlement archaeology” which shows more of an everyday view of ancient urban life as opposed to the lifestyles of the rich and famous we normally get from tomb and temple archaeology. For many years Egyptologists tended to think of Egypt as a “civilization without cities.” Of course, we knew of Thebes and Memphis, but outside of the major population centers Egypt was thought of as either farmland or desert, with no medium-sized cities to speak of. But nothing could be further from the truth.

The earliest part of the tell excavated thus far is the Old Kingdom enclosure, which extends from the western walls of the Great Temple into the lower part of what is called the North Quarry. The North and South Quarries are sections of the Tell that were stripped down to the natural bedrock in the last century by local farmers who used the soil and mudbrick remains to bolster their fields. Fortunately much of the Old Kingdom part of town was left intact, including remains of the old city walls that run along the west side of the Old Kingdom section and then angle east in the direction of the Mammasi (a much later addition associated with the Great Temple).

View of Tell Edfu and the Great Temple of Horus from the South Quarry area (Photo by Gloria Euyoque)

In the northern part of the Old Kingdom enclosure five walls were exposed and left in place by the farmers who quarried the area in modern times. Ceramic artifacts found in the vicinity allow these walls to be dated to the time of the Fifth and Sixth Dynasties. Additional pottery fragments found in a nearby structure show that administrative functions were carried out from the Old Kingdom Period through the Middle Kingdom Period without interruption. In fact, seal impressions recovered from this area indicate that this part of Tell Edfu served as an administrative center well into the Second Intermediate Period.

The excavation area showing the layers that make up the tell (Photo by Gregory Marouard, Tell Edfu Project)

Great Chief Isi: From Excellent Leaders Come Happy Citizens

One of the beloved city patriarchs of the Old Kingdom Period was Isi, the “Great Chief of the Nome of Edfu,” whose career spanned the rules of Pharaohs Djedkare and Unas of the Fifth Dynasty and Teti of the Sixth. His long rule was apparently happy times for the people of Edfu, which was not the case elsewhere in the country. Isi’s legacy was a city prepared for rough times, which earned him the adoration of his people for centuries to come.

Isi constructed a large mastaba for himself in the Old Kingdom Cemetery that lies in the southwestern section of Tell Edfu, just beyond the Middle Kingdom enclosure walls. By incorporating elements of already-existing mastabas into his own, Isi created for himself a nice little complex complete with a courtyard and a corridor that led to a cult chapel where he would be worshipped as a god much later.

Isi’s tomb seems to have been repaired and possibly renovated during the Seventeenth Dynasty, when his mastaba became the center of a local cult devoted to him. The presence of devotional stelae in the corridor and courtyard show that his cult thrived until well into the Middle Kingdom Period. There is also a Middle Kingdom addition to the Old Kingdom Cemetery, possibly added so his faithful could be near him in the afterlife.

One may infer that some of Isi’s popularity may be a result of his policies. When the prosperity Isi’s constituents enjoyed is compared to the national situation, it is clear he was a highly effective administrator. Edfu was a robust little city at a time when much of the rest of Egypt was in serious decline.

The late Fifth and Early Sixth Dynasties were a time when Egypt was hurtling toward the First Intermediate Period. But even as famine and warfare were destabilizing most of the country, Edfu was entering a boom period. Provincial leaders throughout Egypt were enjoying increased power and independence at the expense of the pharaohs, but the decentralization of pharaonic power alone cannot account for Edfu’s growth and stability. Chief Isi clearly exemplifies a line of local rulers who knew how to wield their new powers.

As the bottom was falling out everywhere else, Edfu was expanding. City enclosure walls built during the First Intermediate Period stretch from the northwestern corner of the tell all the way to the southwestern corner, in the vicinity of the Old Kingdom Cemetery. Although most of the architecture from this period was destroyed by the quarrying of the last century, the enclosure walls alone show that Edfu nearly doubled in size during First Intermediate Period.

Looking west across the north quarry toward the First Intermediate Period enclosure wall (Photo by Girolame)

In addition to the enclosure walls, Dr. Moeller’s team discovered pottery shards, fragments of administrative seals, and jar stoppers in the Old Kingdom section of Edfu showing that commerce and government continued unabated through the First Intermediate Period. Judging from the abundance of ostraca related to accounting alone, in Edfu it was always business as usual.

The Administrative Center

The Tell Edfu Project has spent a great deal of effort carefully excavating the area within the Old Kingdom enclosure walls because that was the least disturbed section. As fortune would have it, this area seems to have been the administrative center of town, and remained such even after the expansion of the Second Intermediate Period. One of the most dramatic finds was a great columned hall dating from the late Middle Kingdom Period, another monument to Edfu’s confidence when facing an approaching storm.

Column bases from the late Middle Kingdom administrative center, with Seventeenth Dynasty silos partially visible (Photo by Gregory Marouard, Tell Edfu Project)

The hall appears to date from the Twelfth Dynasty at end of the Middle Kingdom and the Thirteenth Dynasty at the beginning of the Second Intermediate Period. Showing again Edfu’s propensity for stability during times of trouble, the Tell Edfu Project found discarded scarab seal impressions, evidence of sealed papyri, and ceramic jars and stoppers and boxes from this time. The court of Edfu remained a hive of civil and economic activity from the Middle Kingdom straight through the Second Intermediate Period.

The columned room measured at least 30 by 40 feet and contained sixteen large wooden columns mounted on sandstone bases, five of which have been located in place (the bases, not the columns). The hall was probably a part of the governor’s palace, and Dr. Moeller thinks it was probably in use for a considerable period of time. Even after the administrative center was moved elsewhere, the courtyard was converted into a granary that shows continued prosperity.

The Granary

Built in the area once occupied by the columned hall, the Tell Edfu Project discovered the remains of eight very large silos, the largest discovered in any Egyptian urban center to date. Built of mudbrick and sunk slightly lower than the floor of the courtyard, the silos were between 18 to 22 feet in diameter and probably stood over 25 feet tall. Despite the thinness of their walls, which were only one to two bricks thick, there is no evidence of any of the silos having collapsed while in use. The silos date from the Seventeenth Dynasty, toward the end of the Second Intermediate Period.

Did these disproportionately large silos serve as a depot for Theban royalty during their conflict with the Hyksos? (Photo by Gregory Marouard, Tell Edfu Project)

It is thought that the silos would have stored barley and wheat, which would have been collected as taxes and used in trade to support the local economy. However, it seems that there may have been more going on at Edfu’s granary than storage of local stock. Granaries were common in Egyptian cities, but the size and number of silos at Edfu are out of proportion for the town’s size.

Dr. Moeller’s team speculates that part of the Theban royal family of the Seventeenth Dynasty may have had its roots in Edfu and that locals may have used this clout to expand their operations during this time. The Edfu granary may have served as a depot, being in a strategic location for Thebes during this tumultuous time.

Dr. Moeller with some of the grain silos of Tell Edfu (Photo by Gregory Marouard, Tell Edfu Project)

When the granary was scaled back, some of the silos were used for collecting rubbish—always a treasure trove for archaeologists. In one of the abandoned silos, the Tell Edfu Project discovered thirty ostraca which included ration lists and the names and titles of various Edfu officials and administrators of the Second Intermediate Period.

Changing Times, Changing Neighborhoods

The New Kingdom Period marked a time of transition for Edfu, and it appears that during this period the granary in the Old Kingdom enclosure was decommissioned and administrative functions were moved elsewhere. The New Kingdom town center has not been identified yet, and we can only hope it did not lie in either of the areas quarried for their soil and minerals.

What is clear is that no new construction took place in the Old Kingdom neighborhood, which appears to have served as a dump. There is also a heavy layer of ash, in some parts of the courtyard as much as 8.5 feet thick. The quantity of ash does not seem to be indicative of a catastrophic fire, but rather as the result of industrial functions, such as ash from the ovens of bakeries.

There is evidence that Seti I, Ramesses II, and Ramesses III may have done some building in and around Edfu during this time, and shards of imported Mycenaean pottery indicate that trade continued during the New Kingdom Period. For the most part, however, the archaeological record for this period is either still awaiting discovery or has been destroyed.

Pharaohs Shabaka and Nectanebo II commissioned some work in the Edfu area during the Late Kingdom Period, but the most interesting discovery from this time is what could very well be the ruins of an Osiris chapel build by Psamtik I. In the 1921-22 digging season, Henri Henne of the Institute for Egyptology in Lille excavated what appeared to be a small chapel which he dated to the Late Kingdom or Ptolemaic Period. Dr. Moeller believes that the remains may be those of the Osiris Chapel.

During the Late Kingdom Period baboons, such as these depicted at Karnak, were associated with the god Osiris (Photo by Rick Manwaring)

The site Henne excavated contained two large stone door jambs, two sandstone baboons, a uraeus frieze and other decorative stone architectural elements. A large number of Osiris bronzes were discovered in the area, which together with the baboons, seem to indicate an Osirian motif for the chapel.

Unfortunately, Henne did not leave good records of his work in the chapel area, making it difficult for the Tell Edfu Project to resume where he left off. Making matters worse, there are no foundations or walls remaining to demark the chapel proper, so an accurate reconstruction will require more excavation, if it is possible at all.

The Tell Edfu Project has not only revealed much about the history of Edfu, but has forced a re-evaluation of the nature of ancient Egyptian urban centers. Far from being a civilization without cities, ancient Egypt had mid-sized towns that served much as modern mid-sized cities do today. As a crossroads for ancient interstates, a junction for domestic and foreign trade, and a depot for larger cities, Edfu was a vital element of the Theban economy, an important trading partner with Nubia, and a cultural center for Upper Egypt.

The Great Temple of Osiris as seen from the area of the north quarry, near the First Intermediate Period enclosure walls (Photo by Daniel Csörföly)

In Edfu Part Two we will pick up with the Ptolemaic Period and the wonderful temple built during that time.

Additional Online Resources

The Tell Edfu Project

The official website of the Tell Edfu Project has all the Annual Reports in pdf format, along with 360-degree panoramic displays using Microsoft’s Photosynth.

Egyptian Monuments

The articles Hierakonpolis, El-Kab, and The Temple of Horus at Edfu, by Su Bayfield, all have excellent information about Edfu and the surrounding area.

Talking Pyramids

Administration Building & Silos found at Edfu, Vincent Brown’s coverage of the Tell Edfu Project. Vincent also has some wonderful photography related to the Ptolemaic Temple, but that is more relevant to Edfu Part Two, now in the works.

Tour Egypt

Edfu, by Marie Parsons.

The photos “080701 TellEdfu-print,” “080701 silos-print,” “080701 excavationarea,” “080701 columnedhall-print,” “080701 moeller1_print,” and “080701 moeller2_print” by G. Marouard are available in larger and higher resolution format as downloads from The University of Chicago. Photos “Temple of Edfu” by Girolame, “IMG_1136” by Gloria Euyoque, and “2009-09-22 at 17-52-46,” by Rick Manwaring are all used in accordance with this CC Attribution 2.0 Generic license. Photo “EdfuHorusTempleEgypt LeftSide 2007feb7-84 byDanielCsorfoly” by Daniel Csörföly is public domain. Satellite image of Tell Edfu is courtesy of Google Maps.

Fifth Dynasty

Shemsu Sesen — Thu, 27 Aug 2009 05:12:09 +0000

Fifth Dynasty

The Decline of the Pyramid Age and the Rise of the Solar Cult

2494 to 2345

Period	Seat of Power	Factions	Dating System
Old Kingdom	Memphis	n/a	Shaw and Nicholson

Although still a period of prosperity, pyramid building enters a decline during the Fifth Dynasty as priorities shift toward temple building with the ascension of the Solar Cult of Ra based at Heliopolis. Mining expeditions and foreign trade both increase during this dynasty.

Name of Ruler	Years of Reign	Capitol
Userkaf	2494 to 2487 BC	Memphis
Sahure	2487 to 2475 BC	Memphis
Neferirkare	2475 to 2455 BC	Memphis
Shepseskare	2455 to 2448 BC	Memphis
Neferefre	2448 to 2445 BC	Memphis
Nyuserre Ini	2445 to 2421 BC	Memphis
Menkauhor	2421 to 2414 BC	Memphis
Djedkare	2414 to 2375 BC	Memphis
Unas	2375 to 2345 BC	Memphis

The Pyramid of Pharaoh Teti

Shemsu Sesen — Fri, 31 Jul 2009 12:12:10 +0000

The Sixth Dynasty rolled in like the thunderhead that portents a rising storm. There had been tension between the royal line from which Teti descended and the one which had just vacated the throne. Court officials had grown accustomed to wealth. Provincial nobles were flexing their will to independence. Famine. Waves of refugees. Ongoing religious reform. Teti’s agenda could be summarized in two words–damage control.

Pharaoh Teti

Pharaoh Teti (courtesy of Wikimedia Commons)

Pharaoh Teti, also called Othoes, was the first king of the Sixth Dynasty, and ruled for about 11 – 20 years, between around 2347 – 2327 BC. His mother was Queen Sesheshet, but his true claim to the throne probably stemmed from his marriage to Queen Iput I, the eldest daughter of Pharaoh Unas. He had at least one other wife, named Khuit. Evidence found within the queens’ pyramids suggest that Khuit may have actually been Teti’s primary wife.

Teti’s heir, Pepi I, was preceded on the throne by Userkare, whose short reign may indicate a co-regency or an usurpation. Some believe Userkare had Teti assassinated by his own guards.

King Teti was an accomplished politician, which may be why his reign lasted as long as it did, given the political climate. He wisely left much of Unas’ royal cabinet in place, and was not above handing out promotions and titles to curry favor. He further consolidated power by marrying his daughter, Seshseshet, to Vizier Mereruka.

Political savvy was a prerequisite to being pharaoh during the tumultuous Sixth Dynasty, a time of social change. The Cult of Ra based at Heliopolis had become an influential force to be appeased. Famine combined with immigration was causing general unrest across the land. And while not exactly a middle class in the strict sense, the rising wealth and power of high court officials and local nobility signaled a weakening of pharaonic hegemony.

Teti, and the pharaohs who would follow him in the Sixth Dynasty, would do a commendable job of preserving Egyptian ways and institutions. But by the time of his reign, an irreversible gyre had been set in motion that would only continue to gain momentum until it spun the Two Kingdoms apart.

The Pyramid of Teti

The Pyramid of Teti (courtesy of Wikimedia Commons)

Teti’s Pyramid has a height of about 172 feet, and its external surface is mostly rubble. Like other pyramids of the time, it consisted of a step pyramid-style core faced with dressed white limestone that gave it the appearance of a smooth-sided pyramid. Also like many pyramids of the time, the facing stones were plundered, leaving the core to break down due to exposure.

The layout of Teti’s pyramid is similar to that of King Unas, although slightly larger. Like that of Unas, the walls of the antechamber and burial chamber are inscribed with the Pyramid Text, rituals and incantations intended to guide the king through the afterlife. The vaulted ceiling is a painted canopy of stars. The basalt sarcophagus was left intact, and there were fragments of what may have been his mummy recovered inside.

Pyramid Text on the wall of Teti's Pyramid showing his Cartouche (Photo by Keith Payne)

Little remains of Teti’s mortuary temple, although there is enough to tell that there were a few differences from that of Unas, whose design he otherwise closely followed. For one, Teti favored the plain square pillars common to pyramid complexes dating from the Fourth Dynasty, rather than the more modern round pillars. He also changed the approach of the causeway to the mortuary temple so that rather than lining up with the center of the eastern wall of the pyramid it angles away from the south east.

In another apparent nod to the traditions of the Fourth Dynasty, Teti had queens’ pyramids built for his wives within his pyramid complex, and in 2008 the pyramid of his mother, Sesheshet, was also discovered within his complex. These excavations led to the discovery that Teti’s complex was later co-opted for other burials and related funerary chapels from the New Kingdom Period to the Roman Period.

Teti’s policies were clearly intended to maintain the authority of the Pharaoh, and his efforts may have forestalled the coming Intermediate Period. It is apparent that a schism of some variety was thwarted after the death of Unas, although in the end court intrigue would catch up with this master of power politics. His pyramid complex remains one of the most fruitful excavation sites in Egypt.

The Pyramid of Pharaoh Unas

Shemsu Sesen — Mon, 27 Jul 2009 10:30:54 +0000

The King is dead, long live the King.

The death of Pharaoh Unas prompted the most fragile transfer of power in the Old Kingdom to date, but it would hardly be the last, or the worst. Without an heir, or at least one who ascended to the throne, the fact that the crown passed from one dynasty to another peaceably amidst a time of growing turmoil is a testament to what remained of Egypt’s institutions.

Pharaoh Unas

The Cartouche of Pharaoh Unas (courtesy of Wikimedia Commons)

Pharaoh Unas, also called Ounas and Wenis, was the last king of the Fifth Dynasty, and possibly the last sovereign of the Old Kingdom to rule with relative security. He ruled from about 2367 – 2347 BC, around 20-23 years. He had two wives, Nebit and Khenut, the latter of which was probably the mother of Iput I, who would marry King Teti, thus founding the Sixth Dynasty.

Nautical scene from Unas' complex (courtesy of Wikimedia Commons)

Unas was apparently an active king, as reliefs and other narrative art depict him making war with the Bedouin and engaging in trade with other kingdoms. It seems he passed without leaving an heir, and there may have been a brief and tense interregnum, finally settled with the marriage of his eldest daughter to Teti.

Many of his court officers would be retained under the rule of Teti, probably including Vizier Kagemni, which likely did at least as much to maintain law and order as Iput I’s royal pedigree.

The Pyramid of Unas

In terms of pyramid construction, the end of the Fifth Dynasty was as far as you could get from the monuments of Dashur and Giza that symbolize the early years of the Old Kingdom. King Unas’ Pyramid was the smallest of the Old Kingdom Period, and although successive pyramids would be slightly larger, his layout would set the pattern for the Sixth Dynasty.

Monument construction during the Fifth Dynasty was focused chiefly on temple building. The generous endowments extended to the newly-empowered cult of Ra, combined with other growing demands on the royal coffers, left little gold for pyramid building.

The Pyramid of King Unas (Photo by Keith Payne)

In an effort to compensate, finely dressed white limestone was placed over a cheaply constructed step-style pyramid understructure to create the illusion of a small but regal smooth-sided pyramid. As a result, when the limestone casing was plundered in later years the core was left to disintegrate in the elements, leaving behind one of the trademark rubble pyramids of this period.

The inside of Unas’ pyramid, however, is another matter altogether. The inner walls are mostly in very good shape, and contain the earliest example of Pyramid Texts discovered to date. These are passages inscribed on the walls containing rituals and incantations to assist the divine pharaoh in the ordeals of the afterlife.

The burial chamber has a vaulted ceiling that has been painted with a starry nighttime sky. Unas’ basalt and alabaster sarcophagus was found in the burial chamber, and a few fragments of what is believed to have been his mummy were recovered from within.

The base and stairway of Unas’ valley temple remain in fairly good shape, and much of the causeway is in excellent shape. The causeway is decorated with scenes of daily life, including hunting and agriculture, along with depictions of various craftsmen plying their trades.

Starvation during the reign of Pharaoh Unas (courtesy of Wikimedia Commons)

There are also scenes describing the geopolitical climate of Unas’ reign. In addition to trade and warfare, Unas’ foreign policy resulted in an influx of immigrants who are represented as emaciated to the point of starvation.

This was a time when famine was common throughout the Mediterranean region, and Egypt had her own share of domestic problems. These new additions to the already restless provinces were yet another factor sapping away at the authority of the central government, the very thing that had made the Old Kingdom possible.

At the end of the causeway, the mortuary temple itself is in very good condition. Many elements remain, including flooring, palm-adorned pillars, and niches where statues of the king would have once stood. King Teti’s name appears in the gateway to the mortuary temple, indicating that it was completed during his reign, after Unas had passed.

The transfer of power from the Fifth Dynasty to the Sixth may have been with trepidation, but it occurred successfully, due in no small part to the political genius of Teti. As local leaders and high court officials were enjoying the redistribution of wealth that accompanied the slow death of the Old Kingdom, things were not going so well for the rest of the populace, and the institution of pharaonic authority would increasingly come to feel the heat.

Teti would have his work cut out for him.

An Egyptian Bourgeoisie: The Tomb of Vizier Mereruka

Shemsu Sesen — Fri, 24 Jul 2009 11:11:33 +0000

In every recession there are winners and losers. Meet Chief Justice and Vizier Mereruka, one of the winners. Even as the kings during his lifetime were building ever-smaller and cheaper pyramids, this officer of the royal court built the Taj Mahal of the Sixth Dynasty.

Ok, maybe that’s an exaggeration. But Mereruka stands out as an excellent example how the power dynamics were shifting as the Old Kingdom entered its twilight years.

Vizier Mereruka

Mereruka, whose name is often shortened to Meri, was the Chief Justice and Vizier of King Teti, the first pharaoh of the Sixth Dynasty. He succeeded Vizier Kagemni, whose tomb lies to the east of Mereruka’s.

Mereruka came to power during a unique phase of the Old Kingdom when a shrewd court officer could garner power and wealth previously unheard of. King Teti had come to the throne through indirect means, by virtue of his marriage to Queen Iput I, the eldest daughter of King Unas. This, combined with the growing power of provincial leaders and nobility, fostered an urgency to consolidate his own base as much as possible, and creating a reliable ally of Mereruka was certainly a step in the right direction.

King Teti sought to build loyalty by retaining much of Unas’ royal cabinet and by being generous with granting promotions and ceremonial titles, but he lavished especial attention on Mereruka. The Vizier’s list of titles reads like the obituary of a French duke. But the crowning jewel, so to speak, was the marriage of his own daughter, Seshseshet (also called Watetkhethor) to Mereruka. After all, such an arrangement had brought Teti to power in the first place.

The arrangement seems to have been mutually beneficial. Pharaoh Teti had a relatively stable twenty-year reign—although Manetho claims he was assassinated by his own guards–and Mereruka died a wealthy man, as his tomb shall attest. Mereruka was an appreciative officer of the royal court, naming his son Meriteti, which means Beloved of Teti, and serving as the High Priest of Teti’s funerary cult.

The Mastaba of Mereruka

Mereruka’s tomb is emblematic of the changes occurring in Egypt at the dawn of the Sixth Dynasty, a tipping point which would culminate in the First Intermediate Period. The previous dynasty had seen increased immigration even as Egypt’s own crops were failing. Provincial leaders were becoming more independent. The rise of the Heliopolitan Priesthood of Ra, while not necessarily causative of a decline of pharaonic power, nonetheless represented another faction to be appeased during a time of diminishing resources. It was a bad time to be king…

But a great time to be an influential court officer.

Mereruka’s tomb is the largest in Egypt, having 31 rooms—21 for Mereruka and his funerary cult, and five each set aside for his wife and son. Situated to the north of Teti’s Pyramid, and to the west of Kagemni’s mastaba, the size and luxury of Mereruka’s tomb make an unmistakable statement. Pyramids were in decline in both size and quality beginning in the Fifth Dynasty, and although there was a clear emphasis on temple building, the kings clearly had to prioritize the royal budget while officials such as Mereruka were living, well, like kings.

Entrance to the Mastaba of Vizier Mereuka (Photo by Keith Payne)

Even before entering the mastaba, the entrance to Mereruka’s tomb suggests a place where life and the afterlife were celebrated rather than mourned. Relief images of Mereruka greet the visitor at both sides of the entrance, accompanied by his wife, Seshseshet, in miniature, and his many titles are listed along the frame. Although in truth his images are holding staves, his upraised arms seem to beckon friend, family, and supplicant alike.

Vestibule wall - relief of Mereruka's legs with Meriteti in miniature (Photo by Keith Payne)

The tomb is entered from the south, and the vestibule does little to discourage the celebratory mood. More reliefs of the vizier and his family adorn the walls within, along with depictions of a lush marshland with all manner of fish and fowl, and scenes of agricultural bounty. One scene portrays Mereruka sitting at an easel painting scenes of the changing seasons while apparently looking out the mastaba door. One is left with the impression of a kindly benefactor appreciating the continuation of life from the Beyond.

The original vestibule? Looking north in the four-pillar room (Photo by Keith Payne)

One of the more interesting rooms lies to the east, and suggests that the southern entrance may not have been the original vestibule. The second largest in the mastaba, this room has four large square pillars, each bearing its own depiction of the vizier, across from what appear to be four more pillars that have been incorporated into the eastern wall. There are a number of reasons for thinking this may have been the original vestibule.

First, there is the location. Entrances to mastabas were traditionally located in the east, where the second set of pillars in this room appears to have been walled in. The current vestibule is to the south. Second, there is the size—this room is considerably grander than the current vestibule. Third, the room is richly decorated, with scenes of servants and attendants, while serving no apparent function.

Attendants on the west wall of the four-pillar room (Photo by Keith Payne)

We can only speculate as to why an eastern vestibule may have been walled off. It may have been due to the proximity of Kagemni’s tomb, which might have been expanded westward. It may also have reflected a change in religious conventions. As the cult of Ra grew in influence, kings began shifting their mortuary complexes from an eastern orientation toward the south. For a much more in-depth exploration of this room, check the link for Osirisnet in the Further Reading section below.

The largest room in the mastaba is the mortuary chapel, where Mereruka’s priests and family would come to pay homage to the deceased vizier. The room is entered from the south, and directly opposite of the doorway a statue of Mereruka seems to step forward from a false doorway to greet the living.

Vizier Mereruka Coming Forth from the Afterlife (Photo by Keith Payne)

The false doorway represents Mereruka’s portal between worlds. Four small steps ascend the base of his shrine to an alabaster altar where offerings of food, incense, and the devotion of the living would be made. While the face of Mereruka’s statue may have suffered the indignities of time (and vandals), there is no denying the expression of serenity.

Entrance to Meriteti's tomb (Photo by Keith Payne)

There are two other doorways exiting this room. One leads to a suite of storage rooms, and the other leads to the burial chambers of his son, Meriteti. This latter door appears to have been a later addition, but its location and relatively small size seem to have been efforts to minimize the damage to the reliefs decorating the walls of Mereruka’s chapel.

The true damage is a result of the passage of the millennia, but plenty remains to bespeak of the comfort Mereruka and his family enjoyed while circumstances elsewhere grew increasingly dire. The scene depicted below is as good a passing as one could ask of those days. Mereruka is seated in a chair on the deck, and the caption reads “A good road toward the beautiful West, in peace.” Those last words, em hotep—in peace—would ring increasingly hollow in the years to come.

"A good road toward the beautiful West, in peace" (Photo by Keith Payne)